WETENSCHAP IN EEN DEMOCRATISCHE SAMENLEVING. Erik Weber. Centrum voor Logica en Wetenschapsfilosofie Blandijnberg 2, 9000 Gent

Transcriptie

1 1 WETENSCHAP IN EEN DEMOCRATISCHE SAMENLEVING Erik Weber Centrum voor Logica en Wetenschapsfilosofie Blandijnberg 2, 9000 Gent

2 2 Inleiding! Aan welke regels/normen moeten wetenschappers zich houden?! Wat mag een maatschappij van wetenschappers verwachten?! Proces vs. resultaat

3 3 Constitutieve vs. niet-constitutieve normen (1)! Constitutieve norm: norm waarvan het overtreden leidt tot onbetrouwbare kennis.! Voorbeeld (Code of Ethics van de American Sociological Association, artikel 13.04, Reporting on Research : (a)... (b) Sociologists do not fabricate data or falsify results in their publications or presentations. (c) In presenting their work, sociologists report their findings fully and do not omit relevant data. They report results whether they support or contradict the expected outcomes. (d) Sociologists take particular care to state all relevant qualifications on the findings and interpretations of their work. Sociologists also disclose underlying assumptions, theories, methods, measures, and research designs that might bear upon findings and interpretations of their work.

4 4 Constitutieve vs. niet-constitutieve normen (2)! Voorbeeld van niet-constitutieve normen: relatie met proefpersonen.! Drie elementen: (1) Welk normen zijn op dit moment gangbaar? (2) Wat zijn de methodologische consequenties van het naleven ervan? Hoe maken ze wetenschappelijk onderzoek complexer? (3) Wat zijn de moeilijkheden met het naleven van de gangbare normen? Worden ze soms met voeten getreden? Waarom gebeurt dat?

5 5 Fysieke integriteit en andere schade (1)! Nuremberg Code: No experiment should be conducted where there is an a priori reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur ; (art. 5) Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability, or death. (art. 7) During the course of the experiment the scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage, if he has probable cause to believe, in the exercise of the good faith, superior skill and careful judgment required of him that a continuation of the experiment is likely to result in injury, disability, or death to the experimental subject. (art. 10)

6 6 Fysieke integriteit and andere schade (2)! ASA, artikel 13.01: (b) Sociologists take steps to implement protections for the rights and welfare of research participants and other persons affected by the research. (c) In their research, sociologists do not encourage activities or themselves behave in ways that are health- or life-threatening to research participants or others.

7 7 Vrije en geïnformeerde instemming The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. This means that the person involved should have legal capacity to give consent; should be so situated as to be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, over-reaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion; and should have sufficient knowledge and comprehension of the elements of the subject matter involved as to enable him to make an understanding and enlightened decision. This latter element requires that before the acceptance of an affirmative decision by the experimental subject there should be made known to him the nature, duration, and purpose of the experiment; the method and means by which it is to be conducted; all inconveniences and hazards reasonable to be expected; and the effects upon his health or person which may possibly come from his participation in the experiment. (art 1.)

8 8 Methodologische implicaties! Dierproeven, met bijhorend probleem van extrapolatie.! Simulaties, met bijhorend probleem van extrapolatie.! Experimenten die geen toevalsexperimenten zijn (met bihorende probleem van confounding )

9 9 Naleving! Hulp in metro! Politietoezicht! Politie-interventies: Police assigned the 330 domestic assault cases in the study to one of three conditions: to result in an arrest, to result in an order that the offending spouse leave the house for eight hours, or to result in some type of verbal advice by the police officers. Police officers responding to the domestic assault cases were not allowed to choose which treatment to apply (except in extreme cases, such as when there was severe injury or when the spouse demanded that an arrest be made). Instead the treatments were assigned by police in random order, according to the color of the next report form on a pad that had been prepared by the researchers.

10 10 Wat mag een maatschappij van wetenschap verwachten?! Klassiek antwoord (John Dewey): The conclusion to be later reached is here anticipated to serve as a guide in following the further discussion. (1) Scientific subject-matter and procedures grow out of the direct problems and methods of common sense, of practical uses and enjoyments, and (2) react into the latter in a way that enormously refines, expands and liberates the contents and the agencies at the disposal of common sense. The separation and opposition of scientific subject-matter and that of common sense, when it is taken to be final, generates those controversial problems of epistemology and metaphysics that still dog the course of philosophy. When scientific subject-matter is seen to bear genetic and functional relation to the subject-matter of commons sense, these problems disappear. Scientific subject-matter is intermediate, not final and complete in itself. (LTI p. 66)! Aan dit antwoord kunnen 3 groepen van bedenkingen opgehangen worden.

11 11 Groep 1: mag het iets meer zijn?! Laudan (1977): If a sound justification for most scientific activity is going to be found, it will eventually come perhaps from the recognition that man s sense of curiosity about the world and himself is every bit as compelling as his need for clothing and food. Everything we know about cultural anthropology points to the ubiquity, even among primitive cultures barely surviving at subsistence levels, of elaborate doctrines about how and why the universe works. The universality of this phenomenon suggests that making sense of the world and one s place in that world has deep roots within the human psyche. By recognizing that solving an intellectual problem is every bit as fundamental a requirement of life as food and drink, we can drop the dangerous pretense that science is legitimate only in so far as it contributes to our material well-being or to our store of perennial truths.! Wat is een wereldbeeld? Moeten we het niet gewoon houden bij bevredigen van nieuwsgierigheid?

12 12 Groep 2: invulling van Deweys idee! De belangen/problemen van bepaalde groepen dringen leiden minder gemakkelijk to wetenschappelijk onderzoek dan andere: (1) experimenten over aspirine en hartaanvallen. (2) 10/90 kloof in biomedisch onderzoek.! Moet wetenschap gedemocratiseerd worden? (cfr. democratisering van onderwijs, maar toch anders?)

13 13 Groep 3: wetenschapsbeleid! Hoe kan wetenschapsbeleid georganiseerd worden opdat wetenschap zou opleveren wat we ervan verwachten? (Kitcher: well-ordered science).! Voorbeelden: (1) 1/3-2/3 regel. (2) Moeten leken betrokken worden bij de beslissingen? Welke?