The challenge of implementing green gas into the gas supply
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1 The challenge of implementing green gas into the gas supply Jan Bekkering
2 The research reported in this thesis was part of the Flexigas project, which was partfinanced by the municipality of Groningen, province of Groningen, the European Union, European Regional Development Fund, the Ministry of Economic Affairs Pieken in de Delta and the Samenwerkingsverband Noord-Nederland, supported by Energy Valley. Cover: "Slochteren Gasmolecule 02" by Gerardus-Eigen werk. Licensed under Public domain via Wikimedia Commons: ile:slochteren_gasmolecule_02.jpg J. Bekkering, All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission of the author. ISBN
3 The challenge of implementing green gas into the gas supply Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. dr. E. Sterken en volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties. De openbare verdediging zal plaatsvinden op vrijdag 12 december 2014 om uur door Jan Bekkering geboren op 12 februari 1971 te Gieten
4 Promotor Prof. dr. A.A. Broekhuis Copromotor Dr. ir. W.J.Th. van Gemert Beoordelingscommissie Prof. dr. ir. M. Wolters Prof. dr. H.C. Moll Prof. dr. ir. H.J. Heeres
5 VOORWOORD De Prediker zei het al: Er is niets nieuws onder de zon. Vergisting van organisch materiaal is een proces dat al lange tijd toegepast wordt om gas te produceren welke bijvoorbeeld gebruikt kan worden om te koken. In landen als India en China wordt dit ook nu nog steeds gedaan. Daarbij wordt dan gebruik gemaakt van (deels) ondergrondse tanks vlakbij de huizen. In deze tanks worden uitwerpselen en groenafval vergist. Het digestaat kan als organische meststof nuttig worden gebruikt. Een ultieme vorm van decentrale energieproductie en denken in kringlopen. Om verschillende redenen staat duurzame, decentrale energieproductie ook in het westen de laatste jaren weer volop in de belangstelling. Dit uit zich in nieuw onderzoek, nieuwe producten en nieuwe markten. Mijn promotieonderzoek maakt daar deel van uit, en handelt over boerderijschaal groengasketens waarbij biogas uit mest en cosubstraat wordt opgewerkt tot aardgaskwaliteit en vervolgens geïnjecteerd in het bestaande aardgasnet. Dit onderzoek heeft tot het voorliggend proefschrift geleid. Mijn promotieonderzoek heeft grotendeels plaatsgevonden binnen het gesubsidieerde project Flexigas, dat door RenQi is gefaciliteerd. In het project hebben diverse partners, elk met hun specialisme binnen de biogasketen, samengewerkt. Zonder deze facilitering, samenwerking en inbreng van andere partners binnen het project had ik dit proefschrift niet in de huidige vorm kunnen schrijven. Ik waag me niet aan het uitputtend benoemen van alle mensen, binnen of buiten het projectverband, van wie ik steun heb ontvangen. De kans is te groot dat ik mensen vergeet en daarmee tekort doe. In elk geval wil ik mijn waardering en dank uitspreken voor alle collega s en medewerkers binnen Flexigas, het kenniscentrum Energie en de opleiding Werktuigbouwkunde van de Hanzehogeschool die me gesteund hebben op welke manier dan ook: inhoudelijk, het faciliteren van de promotie, of door interesse te tonen. Een paar mensen in het bijzonder wil ik hier wel noemen: Mijn promotor Ton Broekhuis, copromotor Wim van Gemert en Evert Jan Hengeveld. Ton, bedankt voor de begeleiding. Je gevoel voor wat er wel toe doet en wat niet, en op het juiste moment op het juiste niveau aangeven wat er moet gebeuren; dat zou ik ook wel willen kunnen. Wim, ik herinner me dat we elkaar een aantal jaren geleden in de gang tegen kwamen en dat je zei: we moeten even met elkaar praten. Eigenlijk is dit proefschrift een uitvloeisel van die opmerking. Je blik op de horizon hielp om mijn onderzoek binnen het grotere geheel te blijven zien. Evert Jan, op jou kon ik bogen voor een accurate beoordeling van mijn 5
6 schrijfsels, de fysicus in jou kwam regelmatig naar boven bij je hulp en controle bij mijn berekeningen. Daarnaast wil ik nog een paar mensen noemen aan wie ik veel te danken heb als het gaat om specifieke expertise. Johan Jonkman, de door jou aangeleverde gasverbruiksdata en de discussies daarover maakten het voor mij mogelijk om een paar cases te onderzoeken. Een paar hoofdstukken in dit proefschrift zijn daarvan het resultaat. Robert Lems en Jort Langerak dank ik voor de snelle beantwoording van mijn vragen met betrekking tot technische gegevens van opwerkinstallaties. Last but not least wil ik mijn vrouw Ans noemen: Bedankt dat je mijn promotieonderzoek vanaf het begin gesteund hebt! Ik heb al die tijd het idee gehad dat je het zag zitten en geloofde in de goede afloop. 6
7 CONTENTS Voorwoord 5 Contents 7 Nomenclature 9 1 Introduction References Optimization of a green gas supply chain A review Introduction Overview literature Manure and co-substrates Digesters Upgrading biogas to natural gas quality Injection The green gas supply chain Discussion - challenges Conclusions References Operational modeling of a sustainable gas supply chain Introduction Method and assumptions Assumptions Costs Sustainability Results Costs Sustainability Discussion Conclusions future research References
8 4 Balancing gas supply and demand with a sustainable gas supply chain A study based on field data Introduction Method and assumptions Results Discussion Conclusions Further research References _Toc Designing a green gas supply to meet regional seasonal demand An operations research case study Introduction Method Results Discussion Conclusions Further research Appendix A - Properties of production plants and injection stations Appendix B - Relation between SSF, average and minimum gas production Appendix C - Mathematical formulation of the studied scenarios References _Toc Is cost price killing for implementation of green gas into the gas supply? Introduction Method Results/discussion Conclusions Future research References Summary 137 Samenvatting 141 Biography 145 8
9 NOMENCLATURE ABS agent based simulation CHP combined heat and power CSTR continuously stirred tank reactor DM dry matter: the share (%) of biomass not being water DSO distribution system operator End user household or company that demands gas FPE fossil primary energy FPEIO fossil primary energy input output ratio gas demand coverage, i.e. the percentage of a concrete natural gas demand pattern replaced by green gas GHG greenhouse gas GIS geographical information system GP goal programming Green gas biogas upgraded to natural gas quality, in literature also referred to as biomethane GRS gas receiving station, where gas from the transport grid enters the distribution grid, and the pressure of the gas is reduced from 40 bar to 8 bar HHV higher heating value/(mj/nm 3 ) IEA International Energy Agency LP linear programming MILP mixed integer linear programming Nm 3 normal cubic meter (at standardized conditions = bar, = K) odm organic dry matter: the share (%) of dry matter which consists of organic material PE primary energy PEIO primary energy input output ratio Primary Energy energy as found in nature before having undergone any conversion SNG synthetic natural gas, consists of mainly CH 4, produced by gasification of coal or biomass followed by methanization 9
10 VS seasonal swing factor (-), defined by the maximum hourly gas demand divided by the minimum hourly gas demand in a year. = 1 means a constant gas demand volatile solids 10
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