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1 Cover Page The handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation Author: Verschoor, Stephan Alexander Title: Learning about goals : development of action perception and action control Issue Date:

2 Samenvatting In dit proefschrift worden de resultaten van het onderzoek Learning about goals: Development of action perception and action control beschreven. De mens is gedwongen zich aan te passen aan zijn immer veranderende omstandigheden. Dit doet de mens door doelen na te streven. Gezien de constante veranderingen die onze omgeving ondergaat en de flexibiliteit waarmee de mens hierop kan reageren, is het zeer onwaarschijnlijk dat zulke doelen aangeboren en onveranderlijk zijn. Aangezien de mens zonder het vermogen om doelen te stellen niet zou kunnen overleven, is de vraag hoe de mens doelen stelt en intentioneel handelt allerminst triviaal. Aangenomen dat doelen niet (allemaal) zijn aangeboren, rijst de vraag hoe de mens nieuwe doelgerichte handelingen kan leren. In principe is het antwoord op deze vraag op het eerste gezicht simpel: de mens leert doelgericht te handelen door te leren van wat anderen doen en door eigen ervaring. Echter als men wat kritischer naar dit antwoord kijkt komen nieuwe vragen op zoals Hoe leren mensen van anderen?. Om te leren van de doelgerichte handelingen van anderen moet de mens doelgerichte handeling en toevallige beweging kunnen onderscheiden. Hoe neemt de mens een handeling van een ander als doelgericht waar? is dus een logische vervolgvraag. Aangezien communicatie onmogelijk is zonder waarneming van andermans doelen, en de mens van nature sociaal is, is het vermogen om doelen te onder?. Aangezien het vermogen doelgericht te handelen zich ontwikkelt gedurende de eerste paar levensjaren is het een logische stap om doelgericht handelen te onderzoeken bij zuigelingen. In deze dissertatie worden achtereenvolgens de volgende vragen onderzocht Hoe leren zuigelingen doelgerichte handelingen van anderen waar te nemen? en Hoe leren zuigelingen zelf doelgerichte handelingen uit te voeren? door verschillende theorieën te toetsen. 273

3 Doelgericht handelen leren door anderen te observeren Deze theorieën stellen verschillende soorten informatie voor als criterium voor zuigelingen om te beoordelen of een handeling doelgericht is. De zogenaamde Teleological stance theorie stelt dat de manier waarop een handeling wordt uitgevoerd ten opzichte van de omgeving een cruciale factor is om te bepalen of het gaat om intentioneel handelen. Meer associatief georiënteerde theorieën voorspellen dat het herhaaldelijk dezelfde uitkomst kiezen uit verschillende mogelijkheden een cruciale factor is. In de hoofdstukken 2, 3 en 4 word onderzocht welke van deze twee soorten informatie belangrijker is voor het waarnemen van doelen op basis van geobserveerde handelingen, de manier waarop een handeling wordt uitgevoerd of welke uitkomst er wordt gekozen. De resultaten van deze onderzoeken suggereren dat de manier waarop de handeling wordt uitgevoerd (in dit geval dat de handeling wordt aangepast aan de omstandigheden) belangrijker is dan welke keuze er wordt gemaakt. Bovendien suggereren de resultaten dat zowel keuze van uitkomst, als manier van uitvoering dezelfde doelattributie beïnvloeden. Dit laat zien dat zuigelingen al vroeg in plaats van twee losstaande concurrerende concepten, een abstract concept van doelgerichtheid hebben waarin beide vormen van informatie een rol spelen. In hoofdstuk 5 worden twee andere theorieën tegen elkaar getoetst. De motor resonantie theorie beweert dat het cruciaal is om ervaring te hebben met een bepaalde handeling om deze bij anderen als doelgericht te kunnen waarnemen. Anderzijds benadrukt de Ideomotor theorie dat handelingen alleen als doelgericht worden beoordeeld als ze opvallende effecten teweeg brengen. Hoofdstuk 4 laat zien dat zuigelingen die zelf ervaring opdeden met een voor hen nieuwe handeling die opvallende effecten veroorzaakte, een dergelijke geobserveerde handeling (zonder effecten) als doelgericht waarnemen. 274

4 Terwijl zuigelingen die weliswaar dezelfde ervaring kregen maar dan zonder opvallend effect, dezelfde handeling niet als doelgericht waarnemen. Dit onderzoek toont aan dat ervaring met een bepaalde handeling op zich niet voldoende is om deze handeling, wanneer deze wordt uitgevoerd door iemand anders, te zien als doelgericht. Naast de ervaring met de handeling is het cruciaal om te hebben ervaren dat een dergelijke handeling opvallende effecten kan veroorzaken. Nieuwe doelen leren door ervaring Het tweede deel van de dissertatie behandelt het aanleren van nieuwe doelen door ervaring. De Ideomotor theorie behelst dat men eerst informatie moet vergaren over samenhangen tussen bewegingen en hun gevolgen om deze later intentioneel te kunnen toepassen. Hoe dit werkt illustreer ik aan de hand van een voorbeeld. Als een baby voor het eerst een rammelaar ziet weet hij/zij niet dat deze kan rammelen. De baby zal uit gezonde interesse de rammelaar gaan onderzoeken. De kans is groot dat op een gegeven moment de baby per toeval een beweging maakt (actie) die een rammel geluid tot gevolg heeft (effect). De Ideomotor theorie beweert dat actie en effect vanaf nu aan elkaar verbonden zijn via een verbinding die twee kanten opgaat. Dit betekent dat wanner de baby weer dezelfde beweging (met de rammelaar) maakt, hij/zij het rammel geluid verwacht. Andersom betekent het ook dat als de baby aan het rammelgeluid denkt hij/zij automatisch ook denkt aan de bijbehorende (rammel) actie. Door dit principe kunnen zuigelingen door middel van exploratie een arsenaal aan actie-effect verbindingen opdoen die later gebruikt kunnen worden om doelgerichte handelingen uit te voeren. Er is veel evidentie gevonden voor het ideomotor principe in volwassenen en er werd vaak zonder direct bewijs aangenomen dat het ook toepasbaar is op kinderen. De doelstelling van de volgende vier hoofdstukken is te bewijzen dat de Ideomotor theorie toepasbaar is op de ontwikkeling van doelgericht handelen. In hoofdstuk 5 wordt aangetoond dat actie-effect leren op een vergelijkbare manier werkt in 4 jarigen en volwassenen. In hoofdstuk 6 wordt voor het eerst bewijs geleverd dat het Ideomotor principe 275

5 ook toepasbaar is op zuigelingen van 12 maanden, maar nog niet op 9 maanden oude zuigelingen. Aangezien we hadden verwacht dat ook 9 maanden oude zuigelingen actie-effect leren zouden laten zien (omdat deze wel al doelgericht kunnen handelen) zijn we in hoofdstuk 7 op zoek gegaan naar een betere methode om actie-effect leren te meten bij zuigelingen. In dit hoofdstuk hebben we actie-effect leren onderzocht door middel van oogbewegingen en pupillometrie. Met deze methode waren we wel in staat om actie-effect leren aan te tonen bij 9 maanden oude zuigelingen. Bovendien konden we met deze methode een directe vergelijking maken tussen volwassenen en zuigelingen. In hoofdstuk 8 hebben we deze nieuwe methode verder ontwikkeld om hem ook toepasbaar te maken voor het vrijwel totaal onontgonnen onderzoek naar het aanleren van sequentiële acties. Samenvattend laat dit proefschrift zien dat zuigelingen al vroeg een abstract concept van doelgerichtheid ontwikkelen waarvoor ze gebruik maken van verschillende soorten informatie. Verder is de Ideomotor theorie gevalideerd als een theorie die grote verklarende waarde heeft voor de ontwikkeling van doelgericht handelen. 276

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