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1 Cover Page The handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation. Author: Schramm, Sebastian Markus Title: Imaging with aberration-corrected low energy electron microscopy Issue Date:

2 SAMENVATTING BEELDVORMING MET ABERRATIEGECORRIGEERDE LAGE-ENERGIE ELEKTRONENMICROSCOPIE Microscopie is een techniek die gebruikt wordt om objecten te bekijken en te bestuderen waarvan de afmetingen dusdanig klein zijn dat ze niet zichtbaar zijn met het blote oog (< 0, 1 mm). De resolutielimiet van een perfecte, zogeheten aberratie-vrije microscoop wordt beperkt door de golflengte van de gebruikte bundel. In klassieke lichtmicroscopie is de resolutielimiet ongeveer 0, mm (250 nm), hoewel lichtmicroscopie gebaseerd op superresolutietechnieken afmetingen tot ongeveer 0, mm (10 nm) zichtbaar kan maken. Om kleinere objecten zichtbaar te maken kan gebruik worden gemaakt van elektronen in plaats van licht. Ook in elektronenmicroscopie is het oplossend vermogen afhankelijk van de golflengte van het elektron en dus van de elektronenergie. Met hoge-energie elektronenmicroscopie is tegenwoordig zelfs een subatomaire resolutie van ongeveer 50 pm ( mm) haalbaar. De resolutie is echter niet het enige belangrijke criterium in de microscopie. Zo zijn elektronen met een energie van enkele elektronvolts zeer nuttig voor het afbeelden van oppervlakken. Dit komt doordat de indringdiepte van deze elektronen beperkt is zodat zij alleen de bovenste atomen van het onderzochte materiaal aftasten. Bij deze lage elektron-energiewaarden is de resolutie natuurlijk wel lager dan voor microscopen met hoogenergetische elektronen. In dit proefschrift bespreken we de werking van een aberratie-gecorigeerde lage-energie elektronenmicroscoop (LEEM), zowel in theorie als in de praktijk. We beginnen in hoofdstuk 1 met een korte inleiding in LEEM, en bespreken de kathode objectieflens, aberraties in de objectieflens en aberratie-correctie. Hoofdstuk 2 introduceert ESCHER, de aberratie-gecorrigeerde LEEM faciliteit aan de Universiteit Leiden, en de mogelijkheden van deze microscoop. Verder bespreken we hoe de relevante aberraties worden gemeten in een experiment. Deze metingen maken het mogelijk om de corrigerende elektronenoptiek optimaal in te stellen. We laten zien dat dit leidt tot afbeeldingen met een recordresolutie van 1,4 nm. 177

3 178 SAMENVATTING In hoofdstuk 3 introduceren we een theoretisch model om afbeeldingen van willekeurige objecten te berekenen in LEEM en in foto-emissie elektronenmicroscopie (PEEM), zowel voor standaardinstrumenten als voor aberratie-gecorrigeerde microscopen. Dit maakt het mogelijk om afbeeldingen te berekenen van een object bij verschillende elektron-energieën, focus-instellingen, groottes van de contrast apertuur en met (of zonder) partiële aberratie-correctie. Zo kunnen we het effect van deze parameters op het beeldcontrast bestuderen. Daarnaast kunnen we de laterale resolutie bepalen van de berekende afbeelding. We vinden daarbij een theoretische resolutielimiet van ongeveer 0, 5 nm in aberratie-gecorrigeerde LEEM. Dit komt overeen met een verhouding tussen resolutie en elektron golflengte die indrukwekkend te noemen is, nl. ongeveer 1, 25 (bij een elektron energie van E 0 = 10 ev). Al in 1936 stelde Otto Scherzer voor dat de werking van aberratie gecorigeerde elektronenmicroscopen verder verbeterd kan worden door de corrigerende optiek zo in te stellen dat de te corrigeren afwijkingen overgecompenseerd worden. Tezamen met een eindige defocus waarde zorgt dit ervoor dat de aberraties van hogere orde gedeeltelijk gecorrigeerd worden, wat leidt tot een hogere resolutie. In hoofdstuk 4 bespreken we een aantal geoptimaliseerde instellingen van defocus en aberratie correctie. Door een keuze te maken uit deze mogelijkheden kan resolutie afgewogen worden tegen instabliteit. Instabiliteit kwantificeert hierbij de toegestane mate van fluctuaties en afwijkingen in defocus en te corrigeren aberraties, voordat de resolutie van de microscoop aanmerkelijk verslechtert. De resolutie berekeningen zoals beschreven in hoofdstuk 3 (zie hierboven) voorspellen een maximale resolutie van ongeveer 0, 5 nm wanneer de relevante aberraties volledig gecorrigeerd worden. Een logische vraag is dus hoe nauwkeurig de aberraties gecorrigeerd moeten worden om zo dicht mogelijk bij deze maximale resolutie te komen. Omgekeerd kan de vraag worden gesteld wat de verwachte resolutie is als de aberraties gedeeltelijk, bijvoorbeeld voor 80% gecorigeerd worden. Hoofdstuk 5 beschrijft hoe de laterale resolutie in LEEM afhangt van de hoeveelheid aberratie correctie. We zien dat de resolutie op een subtiele manier afhankelijk is van de mate waarin de aberraties gecorigeerd worden. Het is daarom van groot belang om de aberratie-correctie optiek nauwkeurig in te stellen om zo de hoogst mogelijke resolutie te behalen. Grafeen, een monolaag van grafiet, is een materiaal met bijzondere elektronische eigenschappen, zoals een hoge mobiliteit van de ladingsdragers. Daarom wordt grafeen gezien als mogelijke vervanging of aanvulling op silicium in de halfgeleider elektronica. Het op grote schaal groeien van grafeen van hoge kwaliteit is mogelijk door middel van thermische decompositie van siliciumcarbide (SiC(0001)). Door een SiC preparaat in vacuum te verhitten tot ongeveer 1400 C verdampt Si van het oppervlak van het preparaat. De overgebleven koolstofatomen vormen uiteindelijk grafeen. Tijdens de verdamping van Si ondergaat het SiC op-

4 SAMENVATTING 179 pervlak een aantal faseovergangen, waarbij elke fase een onderscheidbare atomaire oppervlaktestructuur heeft. Deze verschillende oppervlaktestructuren kunnen waargenomen worden met lage-energie elektronendiffractie (LEED). In hoofdstuk 6 beschrijven we een temperatuur afhankelijke LEED-studie van het SiC(0001) oppervlak. We vinden dat de eerder vastgestelde volgorde van de oppervlakte structuren van SiC(0001) onvolledig is. Ons onderzoek toont aan dat een extra, niet eerder gerapporteerde (1 1) oppervlaktestructuur bestaat in een klein temperatuurbereik, vlak onder de fase overgangstemperatuur naar de eerste echte koolstoflaag. We hebben ook de temperatuur afhankelijke oppervlakte structuur van puur silicium (Si(111)) onderzocht. Het silicium oppervlak vertoont bij hoge temperatuur een bulk-structuur met willekeurig geplaatste silicium atomen, die een roostergas vormen op het silicium oppervlak. Door middel van Monte Carlo simulaties hebben we de dichtheid van het Si roostergas als functie van preparaat temperatuur bepaald. Hieruit blijkt dat het Si(111) oppervlak bedekt is met een Si roostergas met een constante dichtheid in het onderzochte temperatuurbereik van ongeveer 900 C tot 1200 C. Tegenwoordig hebben de meeste LEEM instrumenten de mogelijkheid om de preparaat temperatuur te variëren van kamertemperatuur tot ongeveer 1500 C, terwijl er afbeeldingen gemaakt worden met het instrument. Het is echter ook wenselijk om het preparaat af te kunnen koelen onder kamertemperatuur. Dan wordt het namelijk mogelijk om faseovergangen te bekijken beneden kamertemperatuur. Een ander interessant aspect is bijvoorbeeld het onderzoeken van de temperatuur afhankelijkheid van diffusie verschijnselen bij lage temperatuur. Slechts een klein aantal LEEM instrumenten heeft de mogelijkheid om het preparaat af te koelen, en er zijn al helemaal weinig vermeldingen in de literatuur van lagetemperatuur LEEM experimenten. In hoofdstuk 7 presenteren we een ontwerp van een LEEM instrument met de mogelijkheid om het preparaat af te koelen naar een willekeurig temperatuur tussen kamertemperatuur en ongeveeer 10 K ( 263 C). Dit prototype geeft toegang tot tal van nieuwe experimenten en verbreedt de toepassing van LEEM aanzienlijk.

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