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1 Cover Page The handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation Author: Heeres, Erwin Title: Manipulating carbon nanotubes towards the application as novel field emission sources Issue Date:

2 S Dit proefschrift gaat over het onderzoek dat ik heb gedaan naar nieuwe veldemitters. Een veldemitter, oftewel een veldemissie elektronenbron, wordt gebruikt om een elektronenbundel te genereren door in een vacuümopstelling een hoog spanningsverschil tussen de emitter (cathode) en een extractor (anode) aan te brengen. Enige tijd geleden waren we allemaal nog gewend om naar beelden te staren, die door middel van een elektronenbundel gegenereerd werden op een CRT (kathodestraalbuis) televisie of computer monitor. Zo n elektronenbundel kan echter ook gebruikt worden voor microscopie (elektronenmicroscoop) of lithografie (elektronenbundel lithografie, gebruikt in de chip industrie om elektronica te produceren, etc.), waar deze bundel gefocusseerd kan worden tot een veel kleinere spot dan mogelijk is met fotonen (licht). Hierdoor is het mogelijk een hogere resolutie te behalen oftewel om kleinere objecten te bestuderen of kleinere structuren te schrijven dan met optische microscopie of lithografie. De kwaliteit van de elektronenbundel bepaalt onder andere de resolutie en schrijftijd in deze processen. Voor een betere elektronenbundel kan gewerkt worden aan het verbeteren van de elektronenoptica of de elektronenbron, waarbij wij gekozen hebben voor het laatste. Met een betere elektronenbron kan ook de tijd om een beeld met een elektronenmicroscoop te maken verkort worden en kunnen processen bestudeerd worden met een hogere resolutie. In het geval van elektronenbundel lithografie kan een betere bron een hogere doorstroming leveren.

3 166 Wij hebben gekozen om elektronenbronnen te maken door middel van het monteren van individuele nanostructuren, zoals nanobuizen en nanodraden, op scherpe, geleidende naalden. In deze context betekent nano dat de diameter van een dergelijke nanobuis of nanodraad zich in de grootte orde van één tot tien nanometer bevindt, waarbij de lengte ervan niet vastgelegd is; een grote aspect ratio is dus mogelijk. Deze nanostructuren hebben interessante elektrische en/of mechanische eigenschappen, die ze tot aantrekkelijke kandidaten voor nieuwe elektronenbronnen maken. Met behulp van een nanomanipulator in een elektronenmicroscoop, zijn we in staat om een individuele nanostructuur te selecteren en te monteren op zo n scherpe naald. In een veldemissie opstelling wordt de naald met de nanostructuur (de cathode of emitter) voor een extractor (anode) geplaatst waarna er een elektrisch spanningsverschil tussen beide wordt aangebracht. Het resulterende elektrische veld heeft een maximum aan het eind van de uitstekende nanostructuur, waardoor de elektronen de emitter verlaten door het einde van deze nanostructuur. De resulterende elektronenbundel kan op verschillende manieren bestudeerd worden. De totale stroom van de elektronenbundel kan als functie van de tijd gemeten en bekeken worden, maar het is ook mogelijk om de elektronendichtheid in een crosssectie van de bundel te plotten, ook wel een veldemissie patroon genaamd. Dit veldemissie patroon, verkregen met behulp van een zogenaamde veldemissie microscoop (FEM), geeft informatie over de vorm en elektronische structuur van de emitterende nanostructuur. Aangezien we dus een sample hebben met één enkele emitterende nanostructuur, kunnen we vervolgens proberen om dit patroon te relateren aan de morfologie van deze structuur. Om in nog meer detail de vorm van de emitter te relateren aan de veldemissie karakteristieken, kunnen we voor en/of na de veldemissie experimenten de emitter afbeelden met een hoge resolutie transmissie-elektronenmicroscoop (TEM). De theorie waarmee we het veldemissie proces kunnen beschrijven, is te vinden in Hoofdstuk 2. Een koolstofnanobuis kan worden beschouwd als een enkele platte laag koolstofatomen in een hexagonaal rooster (kippengaas) ook wel grafeen genaamd opgerold tot een cilinder. De twee uiteinden van deze cilinder kunnen open of gesloten zijn, waarbij de gesloten variant de energetisch voordeligere en stabielere configuratie is. Omdat het in onze veldemissie experimenten waarschijnlijk is dat de

4 167 elektronen uit een van deze uiteinden komen, is het belangrijk om de toestand van dit uiteinde in onze experimenten te kennen, of om dit te controleren. We hebben gevonden dat het emissiepatroon van een van nature gesloten koolstofnanobuis een symmetrie vertoont die gerelateerd kan worden aan de symmetrische posities van de koolstofatomen die het bolvormige uiteinde vormen. Zo n bolvormig uiteinde kan worden voorgesteld als een halve voetbal, bestaande uit vijf- en zeshoeken, oftewel pentagons en hexagons. De koolstofatomen bevinden zich hierbij op de hoeken van de pentagons en hexagons. Experimenten aan koolstofnanobuizen met een dergelijk gesloten uiteinde worden beschreven in Hoofdstuk 6. Bij het selecteren en monteren van een nanostructuur bepaalt de performance van de elektronenmicroscoop waarin het monteren plaatsvindt wat er mogelijk is. Bijvoorbeeld of het mogelijk is om één enkele nanostructuur te identificeren. Of dat het bekijken van de nanostructuur met de elektronenbundel de nanostructuur beschadigt. Door de aanschaf van een nieuwe hoge-resolutie rasterelektronenmicroscoop (SEM) in onze vakgroep in Leiden, ontstond de vraag naar een nieuwe nanomanipulator. Aangezien deze microscoop strengere eisen stelt aan de hiervoor gebruikte materialen, was het niet mogelijk de reeds bestaande opstelling bij Philips laboratoria in Eindhoven te kopiëren. Door deze beperkingen en mede door onze ervaringen met nanomanipulatoren, zoals die bij Trinity College in Dublin, zijn we tot een compleet nieuw ontwerp gekomen. Alhoewel de gehele ontwikkeling en fabricage langer duurden dan verwacht, was het resulterende instrument veel veelzijdiger dan van tevoren verwacht, zoals in Hoofdstuk 3 te lezen is. Samenwerkingen met andere groepen, zoals de Quantum Transport groep aan de Technische Universiteit Delft en de Quantum Optica groep in Leiden, leidden tot succesvolle experimenten aan samples gefabriceerd met onze nanomanipulator opstelling. De gebruikte technieken bij het monteren van nanostructuren op scherpe naalden worden beschreven in Hoofdstuk 4. We hebben ontdekt dat we de hoge stroom van de elektronenbundel in de nieuwe elektronenmicroscoop konden gebruiken om nanobuizen door te branden en ze zodoende op lengte te maken. Omdat deze methode de toestand van het uiteinde verandert, hadden we een manier nodig om het uiteinde te repareren. We zijn er

5 168 gedurende veldemissie experimenten in geslaagd om opnieuw een gesloten uiteinde te creëren aan koolstofnanobuizen die op deze manier ingekort waren, zie hiervoor Hoofdstuk 5. Naast koolstofnanobuizen hebben we ook de veldemissie eigenschappen van indium arseen (InAs) nanodraden onderzocht. Nanodraden zijn massieve cilinders van een bepaalde stof, met specifieke elektrische en/of mechanische eigenschappen. In het geval van halfgeleidende InAs nanodraden, verwachtten we een elektronenbundel te kunnen genereren met een bijzonder lage energiespreiding. In Hoofdstuk 7 staat beschreven hoe we deze nanodraden hebben gemonteerd op scherpe naalden waarbij we hun lengte hebben gecontroleerd en vervolgens veldemissie experimenten hebben uitgevoerd.

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