University Eindhoven University of Technology Department of the Built Environment Unit Building Physics and Services
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1 University Eindhoven University of Technology Department of the Built Environment Unit Building Physics and Services Student Name: E. (Eefke) van den Ouweland, BSc Student number: Project: Graduation project (7SS37) Supervisors TU/e: Prof. Ir. W. (Wim) Zeiler Y.A.W. (Yvonne) de Kort, PhD, MSc Ir. G. (Gert) Boxem Royal HaskoningDHV: Ir. G.J. (Gerarda) Nierman, MSc Ir. W.H. (Wim) Maassen, PDEng Report version Date: 10 February 2014
2 Preface Preface This report represents the final result of the research which I performed during my graduation project of the study Building Physics and Services at the University of Technology in Eindhoven. The graduation project is executed in collaboration with Royal HaskoningDHV in Rotterdam, which is an independent and international engineering and project management consultancy. The aim of the research is to improve the current design approach on the indoor environment in order to enhance satisfaction and productivity among building occupants in office buildings in the Netherlands. I have worked on my graduation project with a lot of enthusiasm and dedication. Especially the opportunity to perform field research was a challenge which required a lot of attention and competences. The versatility of the research and the combination of working at the interface of both the field of building physics and services and the field of environmental psychology have resulted in a unique research project. I would like to express my gratitude to several people who have supported me during the almost one year lasting period of my graduation project. First, I would like to thank prof. ir. W. (Wim) Zeiler for his advice, feedback and guidance during the graduation project. Secondly, I would like to thank both ir. G.J. (Gerarda) Nierman and Y.A.W. (Yvonne) de Kort for their positive attitude and extensive support and guidance on the field of environmental psychology and research methodology. My third word of thanks goes to dr. Ir. M.A. (Rinus) van Houten, who recently retired, and Ir. G. (Gert) Boxem. Rinus and Gert guided the process of the research and reviewed the planning, progress and report. The sixth person I would like to thank is ir. W.H. (Wim) Maassen, who, together with ir. G.J. (Gerarda) Nierman, provided me with input on the graduation topic. In addition, Wim regularly gave me critical but very supportive feedback. Another group of people I would like to thank includes the kind colleagues at Royal HaskoningDHV in Rotterdam and all the companies and respondents who participated in the interviews and/or completed the questionnaires. The respondents are facilitated by the companies Kropman, Eneco, Royal HaskoningDHV, ING bank and several small companies in the Klokgebouw. Finally, I would like to thank my friends and family for their support by means of either listening, reading or exchanging experiences on my graduation project or just for providing me with some necessary distraction when needed. Eefke van den Ouweland Student Building Physics and Services Eindhoven, 10 February 2014 Master thesis E. van den Ouweland II
3 Abstract Abstract The indoor environment in office buildings which are designed according to the latest standards still results too often in dissatisfaction and discomfort among building occupants. Therefore, people can wonder whether a building with an indoor environment which meets classification A performs always better than a building with an indoor environment which meets classification B. One of the causes of this problem is the current design practice which commonly focuses on physical comfort and energy reduction. However, research has shown that more (psychological) aspects are important for the overall wellbeing and satisfaction of building occupants. It is expected that future developments in this area will contribute to large improvements in both occupant wellbeing and productivity. In this research, the knowledge from psychology is combined with knowledge on the current design practice to develop a holistic solution to the aforementioned problem. The current design practice provides a threshold level for physical comfort, while the salutogenesis theory provides psychological comfort. A holistic approach is here defined as a design approach for the indoor environment which aims at promoting the health of building occupants. It is important to realize that health in this context considers the state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing of building occupants [World Health Organization, 1948]. The first step in the development of a holistic design approach considered the determination of the needs of building occupants in regard to the indoor environment in offices. This was done with the use of the means-end chain theory which originates from consumer psychology [Gutman, 1982]. This technique was applied for the first time in the indoor environment by means of ladder interviews. During these interviews, respondents in multiple office buildings were asked which properties they considered as important in the indoor environment of the office and why. The results from the ladder interviews are represented in a hierarchical value map which shows both qualitative and quantitative information. From this map was derived how specific properties of the indoor environment are used by humans to achieve certain values. These values correspond with the physical or mental condition which is desirable for the building occupants at the office. Additionally, the hierarchical structure of the map provides information on the relative importance of properties of the indoor environment. These results are useful in the design process when different design variants are analyzed. In summary, the results from the ladder interviews explain how to design an indoor environment which satisfies building users. The next step in the research focused on investigating whether a holistic indoor environment has a (positive) effect on the building occupant. A questionnaire was distributed among multiple office buildings with different indoor environments. The items in this questionnaire measured the effect of the indoor environment on humans by means of satisfaction, health, productivity and burnout. The usage of the means-end chain theory has proven to be successful in the context of the indoor environment. The results from this research demonstrate that even more than half of the aspects, that the user considers as important in the perception of the indoor environment, have a psychological nature. These findings support the importance of integration of psychological and social aspects in the design of the indoor environment. In addition, it appears that health and burnout level are influenced by different factors than satisfaction and productivity. A regression analysis shows that fulfilling the needs of users, as derived from the ladder interviews, correlates positively with the building user in terms of job satisfaction, satisfaction with the building, subjective health, subjective productivity and burnout level. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland III
4 Index Index Preface.. II Abstract III Index.. IV 1 Introduction Problem definition Relevance Research objectives Research questions Research method Literature review Current design practice Psychology A holistic approach The needs of building users Means-end chain theory Discussion 13 3 Ladder interviews Method Results Discussion 29 4 Questionnaire Method Results Discussion Proposed design method Pie-charts Morphological design method Discussion Conclusion and discussion Conclusion Discussion ladder interviews Discussion questionnaire Further research.. 59 References. 60 Appendices 62 I Pictures office buildings. 62 II Photo collages 72 III Interview techniques 77 IV Categorization 78 V Personal ladders VI Correspondence analysis VII Correlation analysis 139 Master thesis E. van den Ouweland IV
5 Index VIII Questionnaire 140 Master thesis E. van den Ouweland V
6 1. Introduction 1 Introduction 1.1 Problem definition The indoor environment in office buildings which are designed according to the latest standards still results too often in dissatisfaction and discomfort among building occupants. Therefore, people can wonder whether a building with an indoor environment which meets classification A performs always better than a building with an indoor environment which meets classification B. Especially psychological aspects which are proven to be important for the satisfaction and productivity of building users are often neglected. A critical analysis of the current design practice is needed to investigate how the above mentioned problem can be solved. This project assesses the following problem statement: The current design practice does not provide sufficient guidance during the design process of the indoor environment to achieve maximum satisfaction and productivity among building occupants. 1.2 Relevance Nowadays, findings from psychology remain scattered and poorly linked to the engineering and design disciplines that might make use of it [Veitch et al, 2007]. This indicates that the required knowledge and theories to increase the productivity and satisfaction in offices is possibly available already among psychologists. However, designers often do not have the necessary knowledge to successfully integrate these theories in practice. This research responds to this existing gap, by investigating and identifying the (psychological) aspects which remain underexposed or even neglected during the current design practice. Secondly, designers and facility managers continue to ask for demonstrable proof on how the indoor environment influences organizational outcomes [Veitch et al, 2007]. Lots of studies suggest that the productivity is increased by a positive indoor environment, although there is a lack of information on how this positive indoor environment can be designed or what the actual effect on the organizational outcome will be. Absent such evidence, there exists a continued push to reduce work space size by many business managers who continue to see the physical office environment as simply a convenient space to house their employees [ Space Planning, 2003, cited by Veitch et al, 2007]. 1.3 Research objectives To face the problem statement, two objectives were formulated: [I] [II] Provide a critical analysis of the current design practice and formulate opportunities for improvement based on evidence from literature. Investigate and provide an approach on how to design an indoor environment which results in improved productivity and satisfaction among building occupants in offices. 1.4 Research questions Hypothesis A holistic design approach provides opportunities for improvement of the indoor environment in offices in regard to building users compared to the current design practice. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 1
7 1. Introduction A holistic approach is in this research defined as a design approach for the indoor environment which aims at promoting the health of building occupants. It is important to realize that health in this context considers the state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing of building occupants [World Health Organization, 1948] Research questions Does a holistic approach towards the design of the indoor environment in offices result in increased satisfaction and productivity among building occupants compared to the current design practice? Subquestions: [1] What are the opportunities for improvement of the current design practice in regard to the wellbeing of building occupants? [2] Which indoor environmental factors have proven to be important for the wellbeing of building occupants while not integrated in the current design practice? [3] What are the needs of building occupants in regard to the indoor environment in offices and how can these needs be fulfilled in practice? [4] Does an indoor environment which meets the needs of a building user relatively well result in improved productivity and wellbeing compared to an indoor environment which does not meet the needs of a building user? [5] How could the results from this research be used to contribute to improved wellbeing of the building occupants in regard to the indoor environment in offices? 1.5 Research method A schematic representation of the research method is shown in Figure 1. The method consists of multiple phases which together result in the answer to the main research question. The first phase includes a literature review, in the second phase ladder interviews were performed and in the third phase questionnaires were distributed. Each phase is shortly explained in the paragraphs below. Figure 1 Conceptual model of the research method Literature review provides conditions for comfort and wellbeing; ladder interviews are used to verify these conditions and to identify missing aspects; the questionnaire validates the importance of all the findings in regard to building occupants. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 2
8 1. Introduction Literature review The literature review discusses and evaluates the conditions for comfort and wellbeing in the indoor environment (see Figure 1). The literature review provides an extensive analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the current design practice and introduces the perspective of an engineer in regard to the indoor environment. Secondly, theories, findings and viewpoints from (environmental) psychology are discussed. As a result, knowledge from both disciplines was combined to develop design principles for a holistic design approach. Furthermore, the findings from the literature review provided guidance during the continuation of the project Ladder interviews An interview technique which originates from the product marketing industry was used to identify important indoor environmental features. The results from the interviews were partly used to verify the findings from literature and new findings contributed to the completeness of the design principles for a holistic design approach (see Figure 1). More specifically, the laddering technique reveals means-end chains between physical features of the indoor environment and values which are important to humans. The result of the interviews provides insight in how to design an indoor environment which meet the needs of building users. An interesting quality of the ladder technique is that it was possible to analyze the results quantitatively and qualitatively Questionnaire After the results from both the interviews and literature review were analyzed, building occupants from six office buildings completed a questionnaire. The aim of the questionnaires was to verify whether the design principles for a holistic indoor environment, could result in enhanced productivity, satisfaction and health. The information which was derived from these questionnaires was used as validation for the findings from the literature review and interviews. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 3
9 2. Literature review 2 Literature review This chapter provides the literature review of the research. The first and second paragraphs describe the current design practice and theory from (environmental) psychology. The findings from these two subjects were combined to develop a first step towards a holistic design approach in the third paragraph. These theories continue to develop in the fourth paragraph where is explained what the definition of building users needs is in regard to this research. The last paragraph describes the meansend chain theory which was used in this research as a method to investigate and discuss the findings from the literature. 2.1 Current design practice This section provides insight in the design process of the indoor environment in offices. First the limitations of the design process are introduced according to the conceptions and goals of different parties. During the design process, comfort standards are used to achieve physical comfort. Additionally, the term physical comfort is explained and defined. In the last part of this section the current perspective is discussed and possibilities for improvement are proposed Limitations in the current design practice According to RICS a rather conservative culture dominates in the field of the built environment [RICS research, 2008]. It is hard to break with traditional manners and to introduce new and unknown techniques since they are often not proven to be successful and it costs money and effort to implement them. The so called circle of blame illustrates how this principle slows down the current developments regarding the design process, see Figure 2. From this model can be concluded that every party passes her responsibility to another party in regard to high indoor environmental quality. A change in perspective is necessary and awareness on the importance of a healthy, sustainable and productive building has to increase in order to break this circle. Figure 2 Circle of blame [RICS research, 2008] Besides the attitudes of the different parties, lack of knowledge and differences in demands and aims also play an important role [Bell et al, 2001]. The field of the built environment involves researchers, designers, paying clients and using clients (see Figure 3). Researchers draw relations and develop theories on the indoor environment and its users, but designers often do not have the knowledge or resources to directly apply these theories in a design. At the same time the paying client Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 4
10 2. Literature review expects a designer to meet demands for a low price while the building user once again has different expectations and demands compared to the paying client. In order to create a successful building design in which all parties are satisfied, the gaps between the researchers, designers, paying clients and using clients have to be kept as small as possible. Figure 3 An illustration of the gaps between the paying and using client, between designer and clients, and between behavioral scientists and designers [Bell et al, 2001] Furthermore, the current design process is commonly structured according to the top down approach [Maaijen, 2011]. In this approach a design process starts by considering the built environment, continued by the building and at last the user of the building appears. Since the most influential decisions are made during the earliest phase of the design process, the final design of the indoor environment will never have the highest quality in regard to the building occupant. This research specifically aims to contribute to the reduction of the user-needs gap and the applicability gap. Additionally, attention is drawn to the importance of the wellbeing of building occupants in the context of an office building. If stakeholders start to realize that money can be earned by investing in a high quality indoor environment, the circle of blame will be broken Comfort standards for office buildings The previous section shortly described the current design process and the corresponding difficulties. During the design process, designers make use of standards as a guideline to realize indoor environmental quality. The minimum requirements which were set in the ARBO legislation and Building Code and its corresponding NEN and ISO standards are often insufficient to ensure a well performing indoor environment. When the investor, building user and employer have high expectations on the indoor environment, additional standards are needed which can be used as an agreement between the investor, contractor and subcontractors in the program of demands. Especially when considering vulnerable populations like elderly or organizations in which personnel spends most time indoors, high indoor environmental quality is required. Psychological and social wellbeing are currently not included in the standards. This research discusses whether and which additional environmental parameters should be proposed or recommended in the near future. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 5
11 2. Literature review Physical comfort During the design process of an office building, the standards are used to achieve the absence of physical discomfort. According to Vischer [Vischer, 2007] physical comfort includes basic human needs such as safety, hygiene and accessibility without which a building is uninhabitable. These needs are met through applying current building codes and standards to architectural design and construction decision making [Vischer, 2007]. In this research, physical comfort is discussed in regard to the indoor environment according to five aspects. To start with thermal comfort, which includes air temperature, radiant temperature, humidity, ventilation rates, metabolism and clo values. Thermal comfort has been defined by ASHRAE as a condition of the mind in which satisfaction is expressed with the thermal environment [ASHRAE, 2004]. The second aspect is acoustic comfort at the workplace, this includes the value of sound pressure levels and acoustic privacy. The third and fourth subtopics include indoor air quality and visual comfort. The last topic is ergonomics of the office and workplace. The application of ergonomic principles in the working environment can contribute to the prevention of work related injury. Furthermore, individuals perceive and experience the indoor environment differently. Therefore, it is not possible to derive exact standards for achieving absolute physical comfort among building occupants. This paragraph illustrated the framework in which the human wellbeing is considered nowadays, while the next paragraph explains how this framework could or even should be enriched The indoor environment as dissatisfier This section provides a model which summarizes and illustrates the current situation and additionally explains how the indoor environment can be improved. The environmental comfort model of Vischer states that a workspace either supports the tasks and activities that are being performed there (comfort condition), or it fails to support them and in fact slows them down (uncomfortable condition and cause of stress) [Vischer, 2005, cited by Vischer, 2007]. Depending on the tasks they are performing, employees are more or less affected by environmental factors such as lighting, furniture layout and ergonomics, noise level and temperature. Figure 4 The adapted Habitability pyramid of Vischer [Vischer, 2005, cited by Vischer 2007] The environmental comfort model categorizes an uncomfortable workspace where there is a misfit between what people need to perform their tasks and resources the physical environment provides [Vischer, 2005, cited by Vischer, 2007]. Since people perceive discomfort in indoor environments which have been designed according to the latest standards, there is a misfit between what employees need and the available resources within Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 6
12 2. Literature review that environment. What can be concluded is that the current standards provide physical comfort and aim at reducing the presence of discomfort. Therefore, the indoor environment is currently considered as a dissatisfier : the absence of comfort is only perceived if discomfort is present. A dissatisfier does not enhance satisfaction while it does result in dissatisfaction when missing [Herzberg, 1959]. In this context, the presence of positive factors is commonly considered as obvious while the negative factors result in dissatisfaction. As can be derived from the adapted habitability pyramid (Figure 4), physical comfort is not sufficient for achieving building occupant satisfaction and wellbeing. Additional measures have to be taken in the indoor environment to achieve psychological comfort and to eventually achieve occupant satisfaction and wellbeing. The first question which had to be answered at this point is: How to achieve psychological comfort in the indoor environment in offices? The standards have proven to be insufficient and the need for a new approach exists. In order to successfully achieve occupant satisfaction and wellbeing in offices, a change in perspective has to occur. The indoor environment should be seen as a satisfier rather than a dissatisfier in the near future. A satisfier will serve as a source of satisfaction which enables and stimulates human performance [Herzberg, 1959]. At the same time, a shift during the design process of an office building has to take place from disease prevention to health promotion instead. 2.2 Psychology The previous paragraph of this report provides evidence on the importance of psychological comfort in the indoor environment. Therefore, this paragraph focuses on how psychological comfort can be defined and explained and how it can be achieved Psychological comfort Psychological comfort is the counterpart of physical comfort. Psychological comfort or psychological well being refers to how people evaluate their lives. There is no question at all about the fact that psychological comfort is important with respect to how we function and adapt, and with respect to whether our lives are satisfying and productive. However, Veitch et al. mention in their research that, despite decades of research into relations between the physical work environment, the individual workers, their interpersonal relations, and the organization, the findings from psychology remain scattered and poorly linked to the engineering and design disciplines that might make use of it [Veitch et al, 2007]. This knowledge reveals an opportunity for an improvement in perspective and approach in regard to the design of the indoor environment Salutogenesis: Health promotion From a research perspective, health can be divided into a pathogenic and salutogenic starting point according to Dilani [Dilani, 2008]. Pathogenic research focuses on disease prevention, while salutogenic research is based on identifying wellness factors that maintain and promote health, rather than investigating factors that cause disease [Dilani, 2008]. In the context of the indoor environment this means that finding solutions to reduce and prevent discomfort is considered as the opposite of investigating and integrating factors which support and stimulate the human wellbeing and performance. Therefore, this research aimed to develop a salutogenic design approach for the indoor environment in offices. Aaron Antonovsky was the founding father of salutogenesis [Antonovsky, 1979]. He developed a salutogenic model which focuses on factors that support human health and well-being, rather than on factors that cause disease. The evidence proves Antonovsky s salutogenic model as a health promoting Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 7
13 2. Literature review resource that improves resilience and develops a positive subjective state of both physical and mental health, quality of life and wellbeing. The model can be explained in terms of sense of coherence (SOC) and generalized resistance resources (GRR s). In Antonovsky s [Antonovsky, 1979] formulation, the sense of coherence has three components: 1. Comprehensibility: A belief that things happen in an orderly and predictable fashion and a sense that you can understand events in your life and reasonably predict what will happen in the future; 2. Manageability: A belief that you have the skills or ability, the support, the help, or the resources necessary to take care of things, and that things are manageable and within your control; 3. Meaningfulness: A belief that things in life are interesting and a source of satisfaction, that things are really worth it and that there is good reason or purpose to care about what happens. Antonovsky [Antonovsky, 1979] defines generalized resistance resources as any characteristic of the person, the group, or the environment that can facilitate effective tension management. GRR s determine which specific resistance resources are available to a person [Antonovsky, 1979]. It is believed that enrichment of GRR s enhances workers comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness. In other words, it leads to the enhancement of the sense of coherence [Yamazaki et al, 2011]. 2.3 A holistic approach In paragraph 2.1 is described how physical comfort is achieved during the current design process and in paragraph 2.2 a psychological theory is introduced which leads to psychological comfort. In this paragraph, knowledge from both worlds is combined and considered as a guideline to develop a new and holistic approach towards the design of the indoor environment Salutogenesis at the workplace Research done by Yamazaki et al, states that studies on workplace conditions that can enhance workers' SOC are extremely important, as they suggest the possibility of changing the work environment, in addition to the attempt to directly change workers [Yamazaki et al, 2011]. These studies have suggested that the workplace with greater job discretion, good communication, a supportive atmosphere, and respect shown to workers is likely to enhance workers' sense of coherence [Yamazaki et al, 2011]. Given that the workplace is where most people spend a large percentage of their waking hours, the relationship between SOC and work is an area of interest. Strümpfer and Cederblad et al. have studied this area extensively and say that having high SOC will result in the person [Strümpfer, 1990, cited by Breda, 2001] [Cederblad et al, 1994, cited by Breda, 2001]: Making cognitive sense of the workplace, perceiving its stimulation as clear, ordered, structured, consistent and predictable information; Perceiving his/her work as consisting of experiences that are bearable, with which (s)he can cope, and as challenges that (s)he can meet by availing him /herself of personal resources or resources under the control of legitimate others; And making emotional and motivational sense of work demands, as welcome challenges, worthy of engaging in and investing his/her energies in; Confronts stressors, is capable of clarifying and structuring the nature of the stressor; Believes that the appropriate resources are available and can be mobilized to deal successfully with the challenge and is motivated to deal with it. In this research is hypothesized that a workplace which is comprehensible, manageable and meaningful will result in satisfaction and promoted health among building occupants. In order to make Antonovsky s theory completely applicable for the assessment of the indoor environment in offices, a fourth aspect was added. This fourth aspect is physical comfort. The presence of physical comfort is a prerequisite for Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 8
14 2. Literature review psychological comfort and occupant wellbeing and satisfaction, therefore it is considered in this research as a threshold value for comfort in the indoor environment A comprehensible, manageable and meaningful indoor environment This paragraph provides specific evidence from the field of the indoor environment on the importance of the three elements of sense of coherence: comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness. According to Karjalainen and Koistinen the main reason for the many of the problems in office buildings regarding the indoor environment is that systems and interfaces are planned and constructed without a realistic view of their users [Karjalainen and Koistinen, 2006]. Designers and technicians presume the end users to use the systems in the correct manner, which is according to the mental model of the designers. However, users do not have the required (technical) knowledge and develop their own ideas and mental model. When the mental model of the user does not match the mental model of the designer, the usage will be different than expected by the designer. The eventually bad functioning of the systems results in dissatisfaction and frustration among building users. Research done by Bakker has shown that it is a fundamental need of humans to be able to practice some degree of control on their life and jobs [Bakker, 2010]. The need for human control is even so strong, that humans are prepared to invest (work harder, spent more time, etc.) in order to gain more control. In a situation where there is no possibility to practice control, people will not be able to develop adaptive and coping behavior, which might result in an increased level of tension and health risks [Bakker, 2010]. When the amount of control increases, an employee will be capable to exploit the available resources. Results from a study performed by Hewlett Packard indicate that 1.8 million employees in the Netherlands perceive their workplace as not inspiring and unsupportive during creative processes [Werkplek is zelden een bron van inspiratie, 2009]. According to this research, new ideas or solutions for business issues rarely develop at the workplace. These findings support the urgency for meaningfulness at the workplace. When considering meaningfulness of the indoor environment in offices, several aspects play a role. The design of the furniture, space and accessories and color usage of the environment will probably be the most important physical variables. Additionally, one can imagine that not every single part of an office requires the same level of meaningfulness. It could for example be that meaningfulness of the indoor environment is more important at positions where people meet, or where employees attend to creative activities or processes. However, little information is available about this subject since no research on this topic has been known. According to Augé, a meaningful place can be defined as historical, relational and concerned with identity [Augé, 1995]. Therefore, a non place will have a lack of these three aspects and will only have a functional relationship with its occupants. Nowadays, lots of (office) buildings are designed to serve commerce. In building design, commerce is often expressed by means of functionality Defining a holistic indoor environment Based on literature, an attempt was made in this paragraph to define the preconditions of the indoor environment according to a holistic design approach (Table 1). The element comfort provides a threshold level for the indoor environmental quality while the elements comprehensibility, meaningfulness and manageability facilitate additional health promotion and allow the indoor environmental quality to raise beyond the absence of discomfort. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 9
15 2. Literature review Table 1 Definition of a comfortable, comprehensible, meaningful and manageable indoor environment An indoor environment will be perceived as comfortable if: The building occupant is neither aware of the absence of discomfort or comfort An indoor environment will be perceived as comprehensible if: The surrounding environment is coherent The stimuli that confront employees make cognitive sense (ordered, consistent, structured, clear, predictable) The control systems are transparent and understandable An indoor environment will be perceived as meaningful if: The surrounding environment is a source of satisfaction It is interesting It is emotionally worthwhile and sensible It has some historical value It is relational It is concerned with identity An indoor environment will be perceived as manageable if: It is within control It is manageable It provides the necessary resources to cope with challenges or demands An individual feels that he or she influences that what is happening in the environment around him or her Profitability of a holistic design Investors tend to stick to the well known structure of the building process and generally do not like to experiment with new techniques or approaches. In order to convince investors of the application of a holistic design approach or method, there has to be evidence of a positive effect on productivity to make it profitable. Especially in offices, productivity and absence rate are important since salary costs make up about 90% of the total costs of an organization. Therefore, this research aimed at gathering knowledge on how and to what extent indoor environmental quality effects satisfaction and productivity. The work environment plays an important role when considering satisfaction and productivity in the work environment [Been and Beijer, 2010, Duquesnoy and Tanis, 2002, cited by Bakker, 2010]. The effectiveness of the work environment strongly correlates with job satisfaction and job retention when considering value drivers that focus on the whole person [Bond and Galinsky, 2006]. Furthermore, there is a strong relationship between sense of coherence and job satisfaction [Strümpfer and de Bruin, 2009] [Rothmann and Venter, 2010]. Another research, performed by Strümpfer and Bruin, collected data on the relationship between sense of coherence (SOC) and job satisfaction (JS) from published sources, unpublished theses and unpublished reports [Strümpfer and de Bruin, 2009]. The results show that SOC accounted for approximately 25% of the variance in job satisfaction. These findings support the hypothesis that a manageable, meaningful and comprehensible indoor environment results in enhanced satisfaction. Additionally, a research done by Bakker investigated the relation between facility satisfaction in offices and productivity [Bakker, 2010]. During the analysis was determined to what extend employees perceive the work environment as supportive for the enhancement of productivity. The results indicate clearly that facility satisfaction plays an important role when considering productivity. Employees who are satisfied above average with the facilities, apparently perceive their work environment as a positive Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 10
16 2. Literature review stimulator of their own productivity. All together, the measured variables explain 54% of the variance in the perceived support of the productivity [Bakker, 2010]. 2.4 The needs of building users In the previous paragraphs is described how a holistic design for the indoor environment in offices is defined as manageable, comprehensible, meaningful and comfortable. However, still a lot of questions remain unanswered. For instance, it is still not clear how to design an indoor environment which is manageable, comprehensible, meaningful and comfortable. Furthermore, it can be questioned if the salutogenesis theory covers all the important aspects of the indoor environment since it was not applied to the built environment before. Therefore, this research tried to determine the needs of building occupants in regard to the indoor environment. People are often not able to define the physical properties of an indoor environment which meets their expectations. This can be explained by subconscious motives and indirect effects of the indoor environment. If people are asked to list their demands in regard to the indoor environment without being aware of the consequences for their mental and physical state, the research will not provide a reliable answer to the research question. Since one of the aims of this research is to determine what the needs of building users in offices are in regard to the indoor environment, a thorough analysis was necessary of what values people eventually want to achieve with the indoor environment and its systems. When considering the components of the indoor environment as products which are used to achieve values, the means-end chain theory of Reynolds and Olson can be used to define the needs [Reynolds and Olson, 2001]. This theory investigates how the features of an product can be used to achieve multiple values for the user of the product. By choosing the components of the indoor environment as products, the usage of the means-end chain theory provides ways how features of the components of the indoor environment are used by building occupants to achieve certain values. Besides the values, the physical and mental state of the building users can be derived from the results. The data which result from the means-end chain theory can be analyzed qualitatively and quantatively, which is rather unique and important for the purpose of this research. For these reasons, the means-end chain theory was used in this research. The components of the indoor environment were considered as products and the values which building users of office buildings want to achieve were examined. 2.5 Means-end chain theory The means-end chain theory is a theory which is commonly used in consumer psychology to determine the needs of individual humans in regard to a certain product [Reynolds and Olson, 2001]. This theory presents the relation between an individual person and a product as a means-end chain. The means-end chain involves three elements: attributes (A), consequences (C) and values (V). Attributes are external properties or aspects of products. Consequences are defined as the results which are experienced by an individual person while using the product and the values refer to the fundamental needs of humans. According to the means-end chain theory, people continuously use their values to make decisions between possibilities. In this research, the means-end chain was used at the interface of the field of building physics and services and environmental psychology. The indoor environmental components were considered as products which can be used by building users to achieve their values. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 11
17 2. Literature review The most important assumption in the means-end chain theory is based on the conception that the consumer tries to optimize the desired consequences and values. Relations between attributes, consequences and values are hierarchical and can be visualized in a hierarchical value map (Figure 5). Figure 5 Hierarchical value map As can be derived from Figure 5, the means-end chain considers different levels of abstraction. Olson and Reynolds developed a model which represents the different levels in the cognitive structure of an individual human [Olson and Reynolds, 2001]. This cognitive structure provides insight in which attributes are used by consumers to achieve certain values and along which consequences these attributes result in the values (Figure 6). The means-end chain starts at a low level of abstraction (attributes) and runs to a high level of abstraction (values). In regard to the subject of this research, the levels of abstraction are explained in more detail. Attributes are in this case physical properties of the building, such as the control system. Consequences are the results which are experienced by humans in the office environment, for example the opportunity to exercise control on the environment. These consequences relate to one of the attributes and result in values such as satisfaction. Figure 6 Cognitive structure in the means-end chain To clarify the principle of the means-end chain, two examples are given. The first one is a general example from literature and the second example represents a hypothetical means-end chain in the context of this specific research (Figure 7). The means-end chain on the left side of the figure illustrates how the attribute flavored chip evokes several consequences and eventually results in the value selfesteem. On the right side of the figure is shown how a view outside a window might possibly result in well performance at work. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 12
18 2. Literature review Figure 7 Example means-end ladder, left: general, right: specific Means-end chains of individual persons can be derived with the use of the ladder interview technique. This technique considers an in-depth interview in a one-on-one setting. During a ladder interview, the question Why is that important to you? plays a central role. By asking why a certain property of the indoor environment is considered as important by an individual human, the means-end chains of an attribute develop. Eventually this process results in a value which is accomplished with the use of the attribute. The next chapter explains the interview technique in more detail. 2.6 Discussion The first intention of the literature review was to determine what the opportunities for improvement on the current design practice are in regard to the wellbeing of building occupants. Prior to this project, people at Royal HaskoningDHV noticed that the current design process focuses mainly on comfort rather than overall wellbeing. The findings in this literature review mainly support this presumption. There are many existing predictive models and assessment models for comfort, however the physical and psychological state of the user are not included in these models. Therefore, this research aims to investigate how a design approach can be developed which results in holistic wellbeing. The second objective of the literature review was to distinguish the environmental factors which have proven to be important for the wellbeing of building occupants, while not integrated in the current design process. The salutogenesis theory was considered as main concept in this project for three reasons. At first, the principles from the salutogenic theory were already successfully applied in some projects of Royal HaskoningDHV. Secondly, findings from multiple researches provide evidence on the importance of manageability, comprehensibility and meaningfulness in the work environment. Since these are the building blocks of salutogenesis, these researches support the applicability of this theory in the indoor environment. Furthermore, Antonovsky s theory focuses on promoting human wellbeing according to the bottom-up approach in which the human being is the central point of interest. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 13
19 3. Ladder interviews 3 Ladder interviews The means-end chain theory was applied with the use of ladder interviews to identify important indoor environmental aspects. In the first place, the results from the interviews were used to verify the findings from literature. Secondly, possible new findings contribute to the completion of the design principles for a holistic design approach (see Figure 1). In this chapter the laddering method is described and the analyses and corresponding results are presented and discussed. 3.1 Method This paragraph first explains the ladder interview technique and procedure. Secondly, the respondents who participated in the interviews are described based on their specifications. Eventually, the aims and steps of the two applied analyses are introduced, these are the correspondence analysis and meaning structure analysis (see paragraph 3.1.3) Interview technique and procedure The ladder interview technique has been developed specifically to create means-end chains (see Figure 7 for an example of a ladder). Laddering is an interview technique which can be used to determine the purposes of product consumers. Figure 8 Schematic representation of the relation between ladders and chains. Individual respondents produce ladders which consist of attributes, consequences and values. When the ladders from all the respondents are connected, chains have developed. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 14
20 3. Ladder interviews During a ladder interview, which is performed in a one-on-one setting, the why-question can be considered as basis [Reynolds and Olson, 2001]. The respondent is repeatedly confronted with the question: Why is that important to you?, which eventually leads the respondent towards a high level of abstraction. The result of a ladder interview is an overview of the relations between attributes (A), consequences (C) and values (V) (see Figure 8). The interview can start either by ordering the characteristics of a product or by preference between multiple products [Reynolds and Olson, 2001]. If preference is used, the interview continues by asking why this product has the preference of the respondent. When ordering of characteristics is used, the characteristics which are derived from the interview will be used for laddering. In this research was chosen to select a product based on preference since it was desirable to ladder multiple product aspects and more in-depth answers were derived. The products are components of the indoor environment. Based on evidence from literature, ten photo collages of three to six products were created for the interviews (see Figure 9 and appendix II). These photo collages were used as stimulus material to guide the respondents in a certain direction. Each collage represents one important component of the indoor environment. Figure 9 Photo collage of solar shading systems which is used during ladder interviews These are the components which were used: 1. Heating; 2. Cooling; 3. Ventilation; 4. Solar shading; 5. Windows; 6. Electrical lighting; 7. Interior; 8. Location of control systems; Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 15
21 3. Ladder interviews 9. Design of control systems; 10. Workplace concept. Before the actual interview started, the respondent was told that the interviewer is interested in his/her personal motives and needs to prefer one product above another. Therefore, there are no right or wrong answers since the respondent is considered as the expert. Additionally, the respondent was told to answer the questions with the specific workplace in mind where most time at work is spent. For each photo collage, the respondent was asked to take a good look at the pictures and to select one or more pictures based on preference. Subsequently, the respondent was asked why these pictures are preferred above the other pictures. In most cases, the respondent mentioned several reasons or characteristics of the indoor environment which play a role in decision making. For each reason or characteristic a ladder was constructed, resulting in multiple ladders per subtopic. The laddering was continued until an end value is determined. When respondents have difficulties in answering the questions, some guidelines were used to successfully continue the interview (see appendix III). The interviews were recorded with the use of a Philips voice recorder. This enabled the interviewer to perform detailed analyses on the answers and provides the interviewer with more attention for the respondent during the interview itself. Furthermore, laddering is an interview technique which requires some experience from the interviewer. Therefore, it was important to learn from the preliminary interviews. Besides the use of the recorder, the answers from respondents were written down during the interviews to be able to immediately reflect and respond to the ladders which developed during the interview Respondents The respondents in this research were building users of three office buildings in the Netherlands. Each respondent works and has been working at least three days a week in the office building throughout the past year. Furthermore, all the respondents have a daily schedule and activities which can be categorized as typical office work. Table 2 Practical specifications office buildings Ladder interviews Office buildings Location Office size Workplace concept Royal HaskoningDHV Rotterdam 650 persons Combi office Royal HaskoningDHV Amersfoort 800 persons Combi office Klokgebouw Eindhoven 500 persons Ateliers To find statistically reliable patterns in the means-end chains, it was necessary to include at least 20 respondents. In the offices Royal HaskoningDHV Amersfoort, Royal HaskoningDHV Rotterdam and Klokgebouw Eindhoven (see Table 2), a total of 21 respondents were carefully selected. To get representative results, the respondents were chosen as diverse as possible within one office building, as can be seen in Table 3. The aim was to obtain a balance among the respondents in age, gender, job description and location within the building. The selection of respondents was done by personally contacting building occupants by either phone or face to face. In case of Royal HaskoningDHV, the secretaries provided some support to find people who were willing to participate in the research. All employees from the department Buildings were excluded from the research since these people generally have more knowledge on indoor climate control. Master thesis E. van den Ouweland 16
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