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1 Cover Page The handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation. Author: Hannula, Emilia Title: Assessment of the effects of genetically modified potatoes on structure and functioning of soil fungal communities Date:

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3 Transgene technieken zijn tegenwoordig een acceptabele manier om gewassen te verbeteren. Ondanks de toenemende hoeveelheid landbouwgrond die gebruikt wordt voor het verbouwen van genetisch gemodificeerde (GG) gewassen, zijn de effecten hiervan op de schimmelgemeenschap in de bodem grotendeels onbekend. Het doel van dit proefschrift was daarom om de effecten van GG aardappelen, die een andere zetmeelsamenstelling hebben, op de schimmel gemeenschap in de bodem te bepalen door te kijken naar veranderingen in wortel afscheiding en weefselsamenstelling in de planten. Daarbij zijn vergelijkingen gemaakt tussen de GG- (genaamd Modena ) en de moederplant (genaamd Karnico ), in ogenschouw nemend dat natuurlijke variaties (jaar, klimaat, veldlocatie, groei stadium van de plant, verschillende aardappel soorten) al optreden bij gebruik van niet GG aardappelen. Allereerst zijn de methodes ontwikkeld die nodig zijn om deze evaluaties uit te voeren. Vervolgens zijn deze methodes gebruikt op 2 veldlocaties in een 3-jarig experiment om de natuurlijke variatie die verschillende aardappelsoorten hebben op de bodemschimmels te bepalen en in 2 kasexperimenten om de effecten op wortel uitscheiding en plantweefsel compositie te bestuderen. Hoofdstuk 3 beschrijft de ontwikkeling van de methodes die het mogelijk maakten om de effecten van de GG-gewassen op de bodemschimmel samenstelling en functionaliteit te bestuderen die in de rest van het proefschrift gebruikt zijn. Om aan te tonen dat de methodes goed functioneren is in eerste instantie in een 1-jaars veld experiment gekeken naar de dynamiek van schimmels in velden waarop GGaardappelen, de originele aardappelsoort en vier andere aardappelsoorten groeiden. Hieruit bleek onder andere dat de schimmelgemeenschapsamenstelling -en functionaliteit nagenoeg identiek was voor de GG-aardappel in vergelijking met de originele aardappel variëteit. In hoofdstuk 4 is de normale variatie van landbouw gerelateerde activiteiten in het hierboven beschreven veldexperiment geëvalueerd. De groeifase van de plant bleek het grootste effect te hebben op de schimmel gemeenschap in de rhizosfeer. De grootste schimmelbiomassa werd gevonden in de fase waarin de aardappelen al verouderd waren, hoewel verschillende schimmelgroepen verschillende patronen in hun dominantie lieten zien. Ook werden er meer ascomyceten dan basidiomyceten en schimmels in het algemeen gezien in 2010 op beide proefvelden in vergelijking met Dit is een indicatie dat ook de veranderde bemestingsstrategie een invloed kan hebben op de schimmelgemeenschap. Ondanks het grote verschil in organisch materiaal in de grond van de twee proefvelden, bleek de veldlocatie verrassend genoeg geen invloed te hebben op de diversiteit en functionaliteit van de gemeenschap van hogere schimmels en de resultaten van de twee velden konden gecombineerd worden om de normale variatie te bepalen. Ondanks dat er verschillen werden gemeten in schimmel-gerelateerde parameters in de vergelijking van de verschillende aardappelsoorten, waren er geen direct gerelateerde effecten en waren de meeste verschillen niet consistent tussen de velden en de verschillende jaren. Verder werden er geen significante verschillen gemeten tussen de GG-soort Modena en de originele soort Karnico, waarmee bewezen is dat deze twee aardappelsoorten een zeer vergelijkbaar effect hebben op de schimmel gemeenschap 180

4 en functionaliteit. Het enige langere termijn verschil was het verschil in aantallen schimmels in de rhizosfeer in één veld in de verouderingsgroeifase van de aardappelen in 2008, 2009 en Dit fenomeen werd verder onderzocht in hoofdstuk 5. Het doel van hoofdstuk 5 was om inzicht te krijgen in de koolstof distributie van de wortels van GG- en de originele aardappel naar de schimmel gemeenschap in de grond wat onderzocht werd met stable isotope probing (SIP). Dit experiment werd uitgevoerd met grond verkregen van één van de velden beschreven in hoofdstuk 3 & 4 en de verouderde groeifase werd onderzocht om de geobserveerde verschillen in het veldexperiment te bevestigen. De micro-organismen die 13C van de plant ontvingen, werden bepaald met RNA/PLFA-SIP op 3 tijdstippen en de schimmelgemeenschappen Ascomycota, Basidiomycota en Glomeromycota werden gescheiden geanalyseerd. Ascomyceten en glomeromyceten ontvingen al koolstof van de plant respectievelijk 1 en 5 dagen na de labeling, terwijl basidiomyceten langzamer waren in het opnemen van gelabeld koolstof. De snelheid van koolstofafscheiding van de GG-aardappelen was anders dan van de originele variant waardoor de schimmel gemeenschap werd beïnvloed. Er kon ook geconcludeerd worden dat saprotropische en mycorrhizale schimmels snel organische substraten kunnen metaboliseren die van de wortel naar de rhizosfeer gaan. Verder waren er grote verschillen in het gebruik van componenten afkomstig van de wortel op een lager fylogenetisch niveau binnen de onderzochte fyla. De actieve gemeenschap in de rhizosfeer is verschillend voor GG-planten en de originele planten wat wordt veroorzaakt door de effecten van verschillende koolstof bewegingen vanaf de planten. Het effect van potentieel onbedoelde veranderingen in plant compositie, die mogelijk schimmels binnen het bodem voedselweb beïnvloeden, werd onderzocht in hoofdstuk 6. De aardappelplanten die voor hoofdstuk 5 in een kas waren gegroeid werden gebruikt en de bladeren en (poot)aardappelen werden in zakken gedaan met grond afkomstig van de veldlocaties. Het gewichtsverlies van zowel de composterende bladeren als pootaardappelen werd geanalyseerd na 1, 3 en 6 maanden incubatie in de bodemmonsters en de data werd gecombineerd met metingen van extracellulaire enzym-activiteiten van de schimmels (laccase, Mn-peroxidase en cellulase) en moleculaire analyse van de schimmel gemeenschap functionaliteit en fylogenetische diversiteit. Deze experimenten toonden aan dat de initiële decompositie van de bladeren en pootaardappelen sneller verliep met de originele aardappelsoort, wat ook leidde tot een andere schimmel gemeenschap samenstelling. Na dit initiële verschil werden geen verschillen meer gemeten na 3 en 6 maanden decompositie wat aangeeft dat het initiële verschil niet tot langdurige effecten leidt. Daarom kan geconcludeerd worden dat zetmeel-gemodificeerde aardappelen geen risico vormen voor de schimmel gedomineerdevoedselketen in de bodem en dat ondanks het initieel gemeten verschil de overall decompositie snelheid van de GGaardappelsoort vergelijkbaar is met die van de originele aardappelsoort. Deze bevinding werd bevestigd in de veldexperimenten. 181

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