BLOKBOEK METAJURIDICA 2003
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- David van der Wolf
- 7 jaren geleden
- Aantal bezoeken:
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1 BLOKBOEK METAJURIDICA 2003
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3 VOORWOORD Schema METAJURIDICA TAKEN GRONDBEGRIPPEN 2 BIJEENKOMST 1 BIJEENKOMST 2 BIJEENKOMST 3 BIJEENKOMST 4 DE MODERNE TIJD 14 BIJEENKOMST 5 BIJEENKOMST 6 DE FRANSE REVOLUTIE EN DE 19 de EEUW 20 BIJEENKOMST 7 BIJEENKOMST 8 BIJEENKOMST 9 CRISES EN STAATSGROEI IN HET INTERBELLUM 26 BIJEENKOMST 10 BIJEENKOMST 11 APOTHEOSE EN CRISIS VAN DE VERZORGINGSSTAAT 31 BIJEENKOMST 12 BIJEENKOMST 13 BIJEENKOMST 14 i x
4 iv Blokboek GESCHIEDENIS ESSENTIAL HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 36 OVERZICHT 82 TEKSTEN EN DOCUMENTEN Het Sociaal Contract 85 Economie 129! " #$$ Politieke documenten 139 # Ideologie 146 #$$ % Ideologie en partijvorming 159 & " &&& && Ideologie in het Interbellum 182 ' % &&& De Verzorgingsinsstaat 196 &&" () GOEDE BEDOELINGEN, KWADE GEVOLGEN 206
5 METAJURIDICA *+,-.-*/010.,2, ,:,*3.,6-*/,*;3*9,06,890<-*9,0:-4=1*.,6., >-+171>-,<., 6, /-789,<.,,81*12-789,,*., ,705.-,;3*-*70,++-*/,*,*-.,,A*<0,*,-*.,-*=-8900,;,67893>>,*-*., Mededeling onderwijsdirecteur Om de onderwijsgroepen goed te laten functioneren, is het van belang dat er voldoende studenten aanwezig zijn en dat deze zich grondig hebben voorbereid. Daarom gelden de volgende spelregels: 1. Studenten mogen niet meer dan een keer afwezig zijn bij een onderwijsgroep. 2. Niet of sterk onvoldoende voorbereiden, dit ter beoordeling van de tutor, wordt in dit verband hetzelfde behandeld als afwezigheid. 3. Studenten die twee maal afwezig zijn geweest, worden in beginsel doorverwezen naar de restgroep. & Als twee achtereenvolgende malen minder dan twaalf studenten aanwezig zijn geweest in een onderwijsgroep, kan de groep worden opgesplitst over andere groepen, of kunnen er studenten uit andere groepen aan worden toegevoegd.
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7 Voorwoord i Metajuridica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
8 ii Blokboek Metajuridica '-4B-++,*B,0,*1>,6:-**,*.,383.,2-789,B,6,+.1?-*-,7JC36/52,*0,*DK:,7033*.-,/5*70-/1>1*/5*70-/=-4*;116,,*:,?33+.;11670,+1>?61/63223&33601,.1,* 9,0?61210,*1>0,/,*915.,*;3*.,=,1>/,*,23306,/,+&,:-4=1*.,6,2, ! /52,*030-,7.-,.336-*,,*61+7?,+,*&'-4-71;,6B,/,*.C01,/,?370,B,0,*7893?D&,:-4=1*.,6, 2, ,0 B36, B ,**1.-/ 81*0,I0;3*:-4=1*.,6, ,70,++-*/,*&,3+/,2,*,2, ,*0,/,* 618,77,*,*/,:,560,*-77,*-*732,*! Inhoud van het blok,0 8,*063+, 09,23;3* 6,8907;,6915.-*/ 0577,*-*.-;-.5,*< 2330! /33*.33*.,,670,E,6, /7?,,+.,.,1;,69,-.*1/,,*:,789,-.,*61+&,* ;,6B,,701,*/633/*336.,0,/,*70,++-*/0577,*6,890,*1;,69,-.&-,0,/,*70,++-*/ ;336.-/9,-.;3*.,3: ,70330<.-,-*.,?,6-1., 83& & J.,
9 Voorwoord iii *,,6=-4*-,0.116,,*23890-/,1;,69,-.33*:3*.,*B16.,*/,+,/.& E30-7,6/,:, ,.,*0,*.3/,2,*7,*.,=B ;3*.,1;,69,-.2, Historische 1*07033* =-4*-7., +, * ;, *0., 6,,.7+3*//,,*;,6;1,6;3*703?,+/1,.,6,*2,,69,::,*/,=-,*&, ;, ,890,6*-,01?0,;300,*3+79,0+150,68961*1+1/-789;,67+3/ ;162-*/& Economische en institutionele analyse. B16.0.3* 70,,. 33* 9,0 +,6,* 01,?377,*;3*,81*12-789,:,/6-??,* 1? 81*86,0, , 33*:1. 1?., +1*,*<?6-4=,*<-*0,6,70;1,0,*<,*=1;1160& 9,0
10 iv Blokboek Metajuridica ,,*706330/,B,+.<.,.6,-/-*/;3*116+1/<:56/,6116+1/<718-3+,1*6570<,*=1! J0,*=-42,0.-,*701,70,22-*/,*2,0*3+,;-*/;3*.,;116B336.,*.-,.,=,.33633* 3*., 8,*063+,?+3*,81*12-,<,,* 9-A , 16/3*-730-, B336-*,,* 911/70,,81*12-789, ,-0 3++,,-/,*.1276,890,* 1;,6.,?61.58! 0-,2-..,+,*5-01,>,*0,*9,0/,9,+,?618,7;3*? ,,*.-706-:50-,6,/,+0,* 81*061+,,60&,0?+3*21.,+:,6570 1? 3+/,2,*, 577,*:,-.,,I06,2,*+-//,*1*,-*.-/;,,+;36-3*0,*;3*/,2,*/.,7H70,2,*2,0 2,,6.B-*/,*.B-,33*9,0,81*12-789?618,723/.,,+*,2,*<,*B30.,.,,+*,2,673+1>*-,021/,*.1,*1>+30,*&, , 9,0,81*12-789, +,;,* 9,,>0-*., +11?.,6 0-4.,* 0,I0,*.,238907;,6915.-*/,*J9,0;,621/,*;3*:,?33+.,/61,?,*121*.,6.,+,* 2,.,.-*/-*/:-**,*.,/,/,;,*7?,+6,/,+7J2,09-,6,*.336B,+,,*7,,*7?,+,6.-, 9,02,0.,7?,+6,/,+7*-,00,*35B*,,20,*:,.61/1> =,+>7/,B,+.*-,07895B0K * B336-* 9,0,612/330., 7?,+6,/,+7 =,+> 0, *-,0B336.-,706-4.=,+>2-*1>2,,6O/,6,/,+.O-7<=13+7:-4;116:,,+.-*.,21.,6*, E,70,67,., ,A*K& Filosofische reflexie. /6110/,+11>
11 Voorwoord v? :5-0,*</,,* +H2?57;3*B336 B, 1?., B,,0*-,0B3369,,*9,0?3.9,2+,-.0<*189B30=-89:5-0,*=-4*/,=-8907;,+. 3>7?,,+0& @,**-70,:,9,,67,*& 1?.,?+3307;3* 010 1?.63890/,;,67K0, 9,6789,??,*F > -7 9,0?6,8-,7 95* 9,2 0,;6-4B36,*< 0,/,*., 33*?377,*33*.,6,3+-0,-0;3*2,*7,*B,6,+.<1> +-72,0,.1,*=,/,;-,6,*1;,69,06,3+-72,F33633*-.,3+-72,=15.,6,3+-0,-0.3*21,0,*/,1>>,6.B16.,*F Het schip van staat? /,B11* C9, ,*.12D&,0 B37 9,0.,,+;3*., B,6,+. B336., ,*,* B11*.,*&,7030,*93..,*,890,6;3*-*9,0:,/-*.,32:-0-,,,*3:71+50,9,,6! ;1670:1;,*.,/1.7.-,*70=157033*&-,01.<2336.,1670+,/0.,:,/-*7,+,*;3* 16.,-*.,732,*+,;-*/;370&30,6B,6..30C-,01.<*-,0.,1*-*/<23369,0 :,91,>0,33*,,*336.7,/1.&,70330=15-*.-,:,91,>0,;116=-,*N=1.3890,*;,! 12;162,* 010,,*1*.,6=-4*81*061+,7033*., ??-4&
12 vi Blokboek B,,0 B30,633*:116./,:,560& -,1?;300-*/,*9,::,*.-,?,7?16,**3/,+30,*-*;,+,718-3+,B,0,*7893??,* B336-*9,0+H2?-789,?,67?,80-,> ;3*.,:1;,*., ??-4;,69,;,* > *;116B-,9,0; ,7 12:,9,,67:3369,-. 6,.580-,;3* 9,0 010/,03++,*! B37,*:+-4>0.,,,670, /,B16.,*& Markt of Staat? B570=5++,*;,+,*.-,;633/-22,67:,78915B,*;3*5-09, ?,67?,80-,>,*-*0,6!?6,0,6,*3+7,,*:,+,-.7;633/1,0.,1;,69,-.2,,61>2-*.,6-*/6-4?,*FJE30=15 1;,69,-. =15 =-4*FK -,:,+,-.7;633/;,61*.,670,+0,890,6.30., 70,++-*/45-70F1,;,,+0,5/,+79,,>0.,1;,69,-.-*93*.,*F7.,70330*-,03+7., B3*.,+336-* 9,0:17F 7., 732,*+,;-*/*-,0.,=,, B3361? 9,0 789-?;3*., J;3*:5./,003-6, 1>,09-789, 1> 3*.,6, 336.K:,7033* 0,/,* O0,;,, O< , :,78915B.+-/0 9,0?61:+,,2< 2,,6 1> 2,, < B,+,*-/7=-*7
13 Voorwoord =-4* C70330D,* 0,:,78915B,* 3+7 B336;3* 3++,,*., 91,! -*1*=,?1/-*/,*=,0,:,3*0B116.,*& Onderwijskundige aanpak 70,;3* =5++,* B-4 21,0,*?61:,6,* 0, 3890,693+,* CB309,0?61:+,,2-7D&E33612=-4*.,C1?+177-*/,*D;3*.,,,*C?61:+,2,*D;116,,* J;1+/,*7.,1?.-0212,*09,,67,*.,+,,6K3890,693+,*& ;,6+16,*+1?,*-*.,0,62-*1+1/-,;3*9,,+;, ,*.,350, ,,+;, ,*., -*.-,09,23D7B-+;,6.-,?,*0189=3+21,0,*+,6,*3890,693+,*B3**,,6.,=,+>., Hoe de stof bestuderen? 6,8-,712.30B-49,0
14 viii Blokboek Metajuridica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nderwijsmateriaal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
15 Voorwoord ix 732,*2,0.,3*.,6,+,,6701> K0,+,;,*05,+,;63/,*0-4.,*7.,81++,/,7;3*.,0B,,.,1*.,6B & Planningsgroep:. L. Berkvens (geschiedenis). F. van Dun (politieke filosofie, blokcoördinator). S. Janssen (politieke wetenschappen). A. Jettinghoff (rechtssociologie). G. Woltjer (economie) Secretariële ondersteuning:. E. Peters
16 x!" ##$ %&&'&# &# ( &#)* &) %&& &#"&" &#)!(&% &)##&+ $,-). /0 %&&! ( 1 & 2 " 3 45, %&&31 & # 6 &&#
17 XI 3" $ $ %&& 1 & % 37& &2&! 6&& $$$ %&&*& (&22& " # & Practicum Economie: 13, 14, 15 %&&(&2# 1)
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19 1 TAKEN -,61., ! &# ;3*93*.,+,*,*B ;1+/0;1169,0?618,7;3*!&# && C,81*12-789,2,091.,D<3*.,6=-4.7<;,6*,,2052,,6-*.,,,670,,*.,0B,,.,:-4,,*! #1625+,,6*33633*+,-.-*/;3*.-,+,80556;63/,*,*;,61*.,670,++-*/,*.-,010=-*;1++, 789,;,6:3*.,*;3*.,9-,6:1;,*/,*1,2.,09,23D7/330&
20 2 Grondbegrippen GRONDBEGRIPPEN :,B570=-4*;3*9,0>,-0.309,0=,+>.,B116.-*;, ,*.,81*0,I0,*9,,+;,6789-+! ,* C732,*+,;-*/D,* C ??-4D<*30556,* 6,890,* 2330! ;116*33270,:61*;3* 1?., 21.,6*, ,* 2336/,,* C/6110!;-=-,67D< C789150,*!:-4!*3890D< C7,6/,3*0,*D< C:56/,67D< 3*.,6,?61.580,*;3*.,;,6:,,+.-*/,*9,01;,66,.-*/703+,*0;3*2,*7,*&*,,* B-4*336 B30 2,*7,*.1,*,* B30 9, :,/6-? 33*., 16.,& 3*5-0
21 Taken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
22 4 Grondbegrippen Bijeenkomst 1 Grondbegrippen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
23 Taken U F! C, &D! C,71,;,6,-*,B,0/,;,6-7.,;,60,/,*B116.-/,6;3*3+=-4*1*.,6.3*,*& K! C,06,890-79,0/,9,,+.,66,/,+-*/,*.-,., ??,+-4@,1;,69,.,*-*! C,/,*1;,69,06, ,0/,,**1/*-,0/,6,/,+.-7&,B,0,*7893?;3* /,+.-7&D -*.,6.33.:,3*0B *., D& J,) - '< <?&K!!! 122,*! ,,@7J,*7U*,,*7KWWVV&& B336.,*-*.,/63>-,@33*.5-.0<.3*9,:05,,*,,670,-*.65@;3*5B6,8907>-+171>-789?61>-,+& (N) R E E K S A (P) (N) REEKS B (P)
24 6 Grondbegrippen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
25 Taken 7 92 TE,6@:1,@ / 0 0 * Bijeenkomst 2 Grondbegrippen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
26 8 Grondbegrippen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aken 9
28 10 Grondbegrippen * &) 92 TE,6@:1,@ Bijeenkomst 3 Politieke wijsbegeerte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
29 Taken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
30 12 Grondbegrippen C,2,*7-7.,2330;3*3++,.-*/,*DJ +301K,890;336.-/9, *-,J +301K, ,6,.,/,+,-.,,,*9,-.J ' +.,>16230-,,*81*0636,>16230-, 57/,*0-52,*-*0,6*30-1*33+6,890-*.,21.,6*, ;, ,+1/-83;3*.,23890< *,*C+,7?1+-0-G5,7D 32,*+,;-*/,* ??-4;1+/,*7.-,-*0,6?6,030-, 01?-,,*.,6,+-/-,;3*.,,*7 501*12-,,*9,0,61*12-, ,*7:,,+.
31 Taken 13 Bijeenkomst 4 Politieke wijsbegeerte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
32 14 DE MODERNE TIJD DE MODERNE TIJD &# +$0-$5-). 561?3-*.,?,6-1.,;3*.,=,70-,*.,,,5B010.,-*.5706-A+,6,;1+50-,;3*.,*,! 8,77,*-*9,011/21,0,*915.,*& 23890;3*.,;1670,*& * E,70!561?3@B32,*.-, 3+7.,/610, 1;,6B-**3367 0,! ; *5-0., ,1*0@*1?-*/;3*., ,,*063/-789,/,789-,.,! *-7;3*.,+330!2-..,+,,5B7,732,*+,;-*/&-,/-*/0,*1*.,633*,,*+3*/,6,,@7 6 B36,* 11@ /,B,+..3.-/,6.H*370-,@, 116+1/,* J9, ,;,*;3* #-+-?7.,891*,;3*#63*@6-4@<6&!<.,91*.,6.436-/,116+1/0577,**/,! +3*.,*#63*@6-4@<! <., 1=,*116+1/<! <-* */,+3*.K&,0., /1.7.-,* /,*J=13+79,01?06,.,*;3* 6,;1+50-1*3-6, B,.,6.1?,67-* L*70,6,*19,2,*-*9,00B,,.,@B360;3*.,=,70-,*.,,,5B<., ,*@3091+-,@,*,*95/,*10,*-*#63*@6-4@<! K:,/1*,,**-,5B,61*.,;3*B6,,.9,-.<.-, ;33@ 5-0+-,? 1? +3*/.56-/,-*0,6*30-1*3+, 81*>+-80,* J., 3890-/436-/, 16+1/<! ;3*.,,.,6+3*.,*0,/,*?3*4,K1>:56/,6116+1/,*J.,:56/,6116+1/-**! /,+3*.<!</,;1+/..116., ;3*612B,++K&*.,;116.,5-07, /,:-,.,*632?=3+-/,,60-/436-/,16+1/<!</-*/,,*;-4>.,1>2,,6;3*., 0103+,:,;1+@-*/0,*1*.,6,*B,6.,*7122-/,706,@,**3/,*1,/1*0;1+@0K&, ;+5890,+-*/,*70612,*<41.,*;,6;1+/-*/,*,*?,6-1.-,@,1*0;1+@-*/:63890,*=B36, 7893.,01,33*9, ,B,,>7,+,*1*.,62-4*.,*.,+1@3+,B,,6:3369,-.0,/,*., *7?63@,*;3*.,;1670,*&,:,+3*/6-4@70,,81*12-789,/,;1+/,*;3*3+.-,,++,*.,B36,*,,*/,;1,+-/,70-4! /-*/;3*.,B336.,;3*2,*7,+-4@,36:,-.7@63890JB,/,*7;,62-*.,6.33*:1.K,*,,*.3+-*/;3*.,/61*.6,*0,JB,/,*7/,:6,@33*2,*7,*12.,/61*.0,:,B1*,*,*0, :,B,6@,*K<2,03+7;,6.,6,/,;1+/,*,,*;,6362-*/;3*.,+3*.3.,+,*.57,,*;,6! =B3@@-*/;3*.,;116*33270,?1+-0-,@,6-;3+,*;3*.,/610,E,70!561?,7,;1670,*& 5*1;,6B-**-*/B37/6110/,*1,/129,**1/,,5B,*+3*/.,-++57-,0,.1,*@1,7! 2-789,380-;-0,-0,*J-*9,0:-4=1*.,6.,93*.,+,*9,0/,+.;,6@,,6K12=195*,-/,*
33 Taken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
34 16 DE MODERNE TIJD Bijeenkomst 5 Economische en sociale ontwikkelingen in Europa (van de Middeleeuwen tot de 19de eeuw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
35 Taken 17 B,+;3360< 9-4/,3890 B16.0 0, 9,+?,*V'1.63,,*:,91,>0-/,/,6,/-706,, ?., 362,*+-470;3*.,/,2,,*0,< 9,,> ,890 1? ' -..,+,,5B7,81*12-789? , -+.,*,*32:3890,*,+,,6;3*.,45-70,? ,81*12-, I0,*7-,;,+3*.:15B,*.,6-7-81D7.336;3* 3*.,+7!,*? ,21*1?1+-,7;3*.,812?3/*-,A* 81* :,63+-72,,789,-.-*/;3*6,890;336.-/9,-.,*,>>-8-A*0-, Vragen (Armoede en armenzorg) 1.Wat is de crise de type ancien? Waarom had deze ook invloed op de armoede in de steden? 2.Wat is een peasant-society en wat een farmer-society? Welke betekenis hebben beide voor de economische ontwikkeling? 3.Wat waren de oorzaken van de armoede in de middeleeuwen? 4.Vergelijk de armenzorg van de hoge middeleeuwen ( ) met die van de nieuwe tijd ( ) 5.Verklaar de armenwetten die na de Zwarte Dood werden uitgevaardigd. 6.Wat was het mercantilisme en welke invloed had het op de armenzorg? 7.Wat is proletarisering? Wat waren de oorzaken van de proletarisering? Welke gevolgen had proletarisering op het levenspeil op het platteland? 8.Waarom was proletarisering een voorwaarde voor industrialisering? 9.Waarom meenden de critici van het Speenhamlandsystem dat dergelijke armenzorg luiheid en armoede juist bevorderde? Vragen (Van Leeuwen) 1.Waarom zouden elites aan armenzorg doen? 2.Wat is een `collectieve voorziening' volgens Olson? Verklaar het begrip zwartrijdersprobleem in dit verband. Wat heeft dit met armenzorg te maken. Hoe kan het zwartrijdersprobleem overwonnen
36 18 DE MODERNE TIJD worden? 3.Waardoor kon verarming in preindustrieel Europa veroorzaakt worden? 4.Waarom aanvaardden de armen de armenzorg? Welke alternatieven waren er? 5.Waarom is het armenzorg te analyseren vanuit het perspectief van wederzijdse afhankelijkheid van arm en rijk? 6.Wat hield de theorie van de royale en kritiekloze bedeling' in? Was die juist? Vragen (Klassieke economen over armoede) 1.Waarom zullen volgens Ricardo en Malthus de lonen op de lange duur rond het bestaansminimum blijven? 2.Hoe verklaren Ricardo en Malthus dat de lonen soms boven het bestaansminimum liggen? 3.Hoe kan volgens Ricardo en Malthus de bevolkingswet ontlopen worden? 4.Waarom blijven volgens Marx de lonen rond het bestaansminimum?
37 Taken 19 Bijeenkomst 6 De Europese staatsvorming en de Nederlandse uitzondering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
38 20 DE NEGENTIENDE EEUW DE FRANSE REVOLUTIE EN DE 19 DE EEUW +$45,$,$.,0;,6=,0 0,/,* 9,0 3: ,!1> B37 9,0., ;3* 9,0 15.,:,70,+ =,+>F! 21*..,5-0-*.,#63*7,,;1+50-,;3*& 30 B37,,* 6,;1+50-,-*.,;1++,=-* ;3*9,0B116.*-,07+,8907,,*238907B-77,+-*/<2336,,*/610,:,B,/-*/.-,2,0., =-4 9, ;,63+ N 11@-*,.,6+3*.N 1*0701*. 1?.,*.556,,*?1+-0-,@:,70,+B336;3*.,@363@0,606,@@,*;,,+3+/,P.,*0->-8,,6.B16!.,*2,0.,B-77,+,*.,-*0,6?6,030-,7;3*.,#63*7,6,;1+50-,<9336-.,,A*,*/,:,56! 0,*-77,*J:-4,,*@1270K&,.,6,,*B371*.,6.,-*.65@;3*.,#63*7,6,;1+50-,<2336*-,0-,.,6,,*B37-*., B1+@,*&,0B37,,*-*3++,1?=-890,*/,B,+.-/,23*->,7030-,;3*;,6*-,5B-*/7.63*/< ;1*.,*;,+,*9,0,,*1;,6B,/,*.*,/30-,;,1*0B-@@,+-*/&E37 9,0@-*.*-,02,09,0B30,6B,//,7?1,+.FE30B37,6-*.,?+3307/,@12,*;116., 15.,=,@,69,.,*F 1;,*.-,*B37.,,6>,*-7;3*.,#63*7,,;1+50-,11@; ,,70>,6;,*0, ;,6.,.-/,671*.5-.,+-4@&,-.,,A*B-,6.,>-*-0-,;,.116:633@=-4/,3890B,6.0,:,! /33*.,2,*-*/7;, ,*1;,6.,45-70,-*6-890-*/;3*., ??-4&'-4B36,*.,33*+,-.-*/;1169,0>1625+,6,*;3*-.,1+1/-789,70,+7,+7.-,010.1,+93..,*.,?63@0-789,?1+-0-,@,<,81*12-789,,*718-3+,81*7,G5,*0-,7;3*>5*.32,*0,+,>-+171! >-789,,*6,+-/-,5=,1?;300-*/,*0,;,6.5-.,+-4@,*,*.5711@0,6,890;336.-/,*& -0.-,-.,1+1/-789, 81*>61*030-,7 J:-4,,*@1270 K =15.,* +30,6.,/610,?360-4,* 33*9,0,-*.,;3*.,*,/,*0-,*.,,,5B<21,70,*=-42,,6,*2,,611@6,@,*-*/ 915.,* 2,0.,/5*70;3*.,@-,=,67&,81*>61*0,,6. 2,0 1> =,+>795*16/3* ,,,*9,-.0,:,B36,*& 3*.,+3*/,*,/,*0-,*.,,,5B.-,3+-*:,/1**,*B37<@B32?37-*:-4 9,05-0:6,@,*;3*.,,,670,B,6, /,,*,-*.,&*.-,116+1/85+2-*,,6.,*,,* 33*03+?1+-0-,@,?618,77,*,*-.,1+1/-789,,*85+056,+,1*0B-@@,+-*/,*.-,.,*,/,*! 0-,*.,!,,5B7,70330B,+9,,+;,6;3*9,01167?61*@,+-4@,-.,33+;3*,,*230,6-A+, 6, ,*B,//,;1,6.&
39 Taken 21 Bijeenkomst 7 De rechtsstaat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
40 22 IDEOLOGIE EN PARTIJVORMING Bijeenkomst 8 Ideologie en politiek in de negentiende eeuw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
41 Taken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at verstaat de auteur onder vrijheid? 2.Welke drie revoluties worden in deze tekst beschreven? 3.Noem de twee beginselen die volgens de auteur de grondslag vormen voor het voorzien van de behoefte in het maatschappelijk leven. 4.Waarom zijn deze beginselen zo belangrijk? 5.Waarop baseert de auteur zijn geloof dat de vrijheid steeds zal zegevieren? 6.Welke taak wordt er aan de wetenschap opgedragen? VRAGEN BIJ ABRAHAM KUYPER 1. Wat verstaat Kuyper onder `soevereiniteit'? 2. In welke situatie heeft volgens Kuyper het staatsgezag bestaansrecht? 3. Welke instantie of personen dragen volgens Kuyper uiteindelijk de verantwoording voor de vrijheid?
42 24 IDEOLOGIE EN PARTIJVORMING VRAGEN BIJ P.J.M. AALBERSE 1. Wat is volgens Aalberse kenmerkend voor de Christelijke opvatting over mens en staat? 2. In hoeverre is de oud-liberale opvatting in strijd met de christelijke? 3. In welke opzichten is de opvatting van de `nieuwere liberalen' en de sociaal-democraten in strijd met de christelijke opvatting? 4. Wat is volgens Aalberse het verschil tussen vrijheid en bandeloosheid, en waar ligt de grens tussen beide? 5. Wat is volgens Aalberse het doel van de staat? VRAGEN BIJ TROELSTRA 1. Wat is volgens Troelstra de oorzaak van het armoedige bestaan van de arbeidersklasse? 2. Welke rol speelt de staat in de klassenstrijd? 3. Hoe kan volgens Troelstra de arbeidersklasse zich tegen de staat verweren? 4. Waarom moet de arbeidersklasse zich volgens Troelstra in toenemende mate gaan bemoeien met de politiek? 5. Waarom speelt voor Troelstra de kieswet een grote rol voor de arbeidersklasse? 6. Waarom is Troelstra van mening dat de burgerlijke partijen in handen waren van de kapitalistische klasse? 7. Waarom noemt Troelstra het Leidsche program, het program van twee elkaar tegenstrevende krachten? 8. Hoewel het tijdperk der `Sociale Politiek' was aangebroken, vond Troelstra toch dat het verzet moest blijven, waarom? 9. Op wat voor een wijze denkt Troelstra de politieke macht te veroveren en waarom op die wijze? VRAGEN BIJ J. VAN DER PUTTEN 1. Welke bezwaren opperde Groen tegen de Kieswet van Thorbecke? 2. Wat heeft Abraham Kuyper met de antithese bedoeld? 3. Welke taak heeft de overheid volgens Kuyper? 4. Verklaar het leerstuk van de "soevereiniteit in eigen kring". 5. Hoe heeft Kuyper de sociale kwestie benaderd? 6. Hoe zag Kuyper de relatie tussen de anti-these en de sociale kwestie? 7. Welke kritiek had Lohman op het staatkundig beleid van Kuyper? 8.Hoe zagen de Nederlandse katholieken de verhouding tussen Kerk, Staat en maatschappij? 9. Geef enkele belangrijke verschillen weer tussen de katholieken en calvinisten omtrent de verhouding tussen de staat en de maatschappij. 10. Wat is de strekking van de thomistische natuurrechtsleer? 11. Wat is de oorzaak dat de katholieken steeds meer afstand namen van de liberalen en steeds meer toenadering zochten tot de protestanten? 12. Welk standpunt nam de rooms-katholieke kerk in t.o.v. de sociale kwestie?
43 Taken 25 Bijeenkomst 9 De Grote Transformatie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
44 26 HET INTERBELLUM CRISES EN STAATSGROEI IN HET INTERBELLUM B336-*.,+,-.-*/;3*:,.6-4;,*;,60,/,*B116.-/.-7&,7056-*/;3*.,1;,69, ,116+1/06,.,*.,1;,69,.,*,,*:,,04,J2336*-,0;116+3*/K0,65/<=-49,0?37 -*.,,81*12-,& 7,75-0<.-,-* 1;,6,,*70,22-*/ 2,0 9,0 9,,67,*., 0,89* ,,* 816? ! 2,*03-6!., ,70330& *.,436,*.,60-/B16.0.,1;,69,-.7-*;+1,.1?9, !,81*12-789:,+,-.33*! 9,,>0.3*3>/,.33*& /1;,69,-.7-*/6-4?,*-*.,,81*12-,-733*+,-.-*/ 9,.,*;3*C.,*30-1*3+,,81*12-,D& ;3+-7,6,*.,7891+,*1*.,6.,,81*12,*&,*8,*0633+?5*09-,6:-4-7.,;633/ E-, 23/ B3361;,6:,7+-77,*,*-* B30; ;-*.0.-,:,7+5-0;162-*/?+3307F
45 Taken 27 Bijeenkomst 10 De Eerste Wereldoorlog en zijn gevolgen,=,* E 8 0/ 1 * 0*/ ( * 72 J1852,*0,*K 7CF)J1852,*0,*K 7 J1852,*0,*K 3.,,,670,B,6, //-*/9,0,6-*.,-*0,6*30-1*3+,?1+-0-,@:-4=1*.,6B1,+-/ 33*01,&,@3360;3*561?3=3/,612706,,@79,,+3*., *-*35/ ,81225* ,-.,1+1/-,,* ,/-2,&'-4B37,61?,*+-4@1?5-0.,C?61+, ,6,;1+50-,D11@:5-0,*.,,-/,*/6,*=,*0,70-25+,6,* ?33* !+-*@7,<1;,6B,/,*.,I063?36+,2,*03-6,6,;1+50-1*3-6,:,B,/-*/,*&,*.,+, 3+7,,*6,380-,1?.-,+-*@7,.6,-/-*/2,0,,*C@+377,*706-4.D<0,*.,+,3+7.,+1/-789, ;1160=,00-*/;3*3*.,6,+330!*,/,*0-,*.,!,,5B7,-.,1+1/-,A*<.-,,,* *.,6., *30-,7 1>,,* 6377,*706-4.?61?3/,,6.,*<;162.,* =-89 11@ 0,6 6,890,6=-4., , :,B,/-*/,*&,/,*9,0;,6:3+,,*>H7-,@,/,B,+.;3*.-,,I06,2-70,*+,,@.,+-:,63+,?36+,2,*! 03-6,., ,*-,01?/,B377,*&*;, ,*.,+3*.,*@B32,*3+.3**-, ! 6,<6,8907,1>+-*@7, ,1> ,6,/-2,7*336;16,*<; /6,?,* 1>3*.,67=-*7&,., ,=30/,;3*/,*-*,,*-.,1+1/-789,03*//,; * ,,* , ,*& 1;,*.-,* 03700, 11@., 610,,?6,77-, ;3*.,436,*.,60-/.,/,+11>B336.-/9,-.;3*.,:,7033*.,16.,-*.,B,70,67,B,6,+. 33*& E37.-, *-,0-* 9, =,+>;3* 9,0 B,70,67,@3? ,:,/1**,*<-* E3++06,,0<9,0>-*3*8-A+,8,*0652;3*.,/611070,., ,0,6B,6,+.F,00-4.!?,6@;3*.,., ,+,,@;116:-4<3+093*7-*9,0/611070,.,,+;3*561?3&,/,*.-,3890,6/61*.@B329,0816? ,*336;1169,0=-43+7,,*3+0,6*30-,> ;116.,?36+,2,*03-6,., , 9,0=-4 3+7,,* *11.=3@,+-4@ 2-.., *703*.0,915.,* ,,**-,5B,?1+-0-,@,-*915.0,/,;,*&,,6@?11/.,-*.30?61!816? ,@ /,=3/0,9,670,++,*.116.,B,! 6,+.0,9,6-**,6,*33*.,@3091+-,@,1167?61*/;3*9,0816? ,&,0816?163! 0-72,;3*9,0*0,6:,++52B37,6,890,6*-,01?/,6-890.,23890;3*.,C/1..,+1=, 70330D0,:,?,6@,*2336B,+0,;,670,6@,*&,+,*@,@,*2,0:,B1*.,6-*/* *-.-,,6N=1+,,@9,03+093*7N-* /,7+33/.B37;3*03+-AB,,6,,*B,+;36,*.,,*/,6,7?,80,,6.,*30-,0,23@,*&'-4* C, ?1630-;1DJ816?1630-,;,70330KB,6..65@:,8122,*036-,,6.<1>78911*=-4*
46 28 HET INTERBELLUM -*6-890-*/;3*=-4*30-1*3+,81;,6H.2-* *,*=-4*/ ,*0 80& E,+-7B336 B37., 0,62 C816? ,D;116., 33*;336.:336 J., 0,62 C816?1630-1*D 9,,>0;116 9,*,,* 3+ 0, 2336., ,7D J6,/, ,-0,*< B336;3*,6 2,,6.3* =B336.,6,.,?6,77-,& 5-0,*.,6,/,6-*/=3/., ,*.1,*F, 2,,6.,69,-. 1*.,6 9,*:,7,>0,.30 95* 236I , 09,16-, 12.,.,?6,77-,0,:,706-4.,*&*.,+11?;3*.,436,*.,60-/:,7+10,*., ,* 15.,6,;1+50-1*3-6,1?;300-*/,*1?0,/,;,*;116,,* !,81* ?36+,2,*03-6!., ? ,* *7 6,;1+50-1*3-6, =1*.,6-* 9,0;336B30,6 9,0 = ,C-,5B,6.,D33*.-,*,*., ,C6,8907,D816? ,& VRAGEN (Corporatisme) 1. Wat is de kern van de corporatistische gedachte? 2. Van welke maatschappij-opvatting gaat het corporatisme uit? 3. Wat is het verschil tussen een biologisch en een maatschappelijk organisme? 4. Is een corporatieve maatschappij-ordening onverbrekelijk verbonden met een corporatieve staatsvorm? 5. Wat is het verschil tussen corporatisme, staatscorporatisme en syndicalisme?
47 Taken 29 Bijeenkomst 11 Economische ontwikkelingen in het Interbellum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
48 30 HET INTERBELLUM VRAGEN (Plan van de Arbeid) 1. Wat beoogde het Plan van de Arbeid te bereiken? 2. In welk opzicht was het Plan gebaseerd op de inzichten van Keynes? 3. Waarom zou volgens het Plan juist een koopkrachtverbetering van de arbeiders leiden tot een opleving van de economie? 4. Welke voorstellen doet het Plan ten aanzien van de economische ordening?
49 Taken 31 APOTHEOSE EN CRISIS VAN DE VERZORGINGSSTAAT +$,/. /,*;3*.,E,70!561?,7,7030,*&,B,6,+.93*.,+-*9,03+/,2,,*,*.,561?,7, 93*.,+-*9,0:-4=1*.,69,6+,,>.,**3,,670-*!,*.336*3-*.,436,*D,* 21/,*.9,.,*&,0,65/06,.;3*.,1;,69,.,*B37*3.,0B,,.,B,6, /:,!.5-.,*.2-*.,6.3**3.,,,670,&J*,.,6+3*.:+,;,*=,+>7,,*33*03+,7+5-0B,00,* -**,*., 816? , ,*;3*.,=,;,6! =-89 1?;116 C.,,81*12-789, B,.,61?:15BD,* ;1163+;116.,5-0:15B;3*.,21.,6*,3++,712;300,*.,;,6=16/-*/770330& @,?360-4,*<B-,623890,*-*;+1,.-*., /610,6/,B16.,*B36,*<70,+.,* ;633/.-,+-:,63+,*<81*>,77-1*,+,*,* ,*:,=-/9-,+.<*1/7+,8907.,?6-16-0,-! 0,*;3*9,0:,+,-.0,:,06,>>,*&63/,*1;,6.,81* ,;3*.,70330;,6.B,*,* 0,66,5633*7+3/,*< /-4=,+-*/,*< -*0,6*30-1*3+, 21*,03-6, 89317,*?,623*,*0 91/,
50 32 NA DE TWEEDE WERELDOORLOG 3*9,0,-*.,;3*.,436,*=,;,*0-/B37-,.,6,,*9,0,61;,6,,*7.309,0=1*-,0 6,+.,81*12-,-*,,*.-,?,6,8,77-,<.-,-*;,,++3*.,*1*.,6+-//,*.,< ,+,?61! K,*1*3+.,3/3*J?6,7-.,*0!KB-,6:,+,-.7*,+.,*162B,6.;116., +-:,63+-7,6-*/DK-*81225* *3,*9,0;,6.B-4*,*;3*., 1;4,05*-,,* 9,0 :-4F :,.6-4;,**3369,0:5-0,*+3*.J*336.,C.,+3/,!+11*+3*.,*DK,*.,718-3+,;116=-,*-*! 1?*-,5B=151?+33-,*<33*/,=-,*.,-*0,6*30-1*3+,93*.,+*1/3+B30/,;,70-/.,:,! 93..,*/,7?,,+.&,7030,*.6,-/.,*.,>-783+,3627+3/0,;,6+-,=,*;116.,93*.93;-*/,*.,5-0! :6,-.-*/;3*9,0.56,?614,80;3*.,;,6=16/-*/770330<.30/,:37,,6.B371?.,;,6! B37 1*.,60577,* 5-0/,/61,-.010,,* 6, /:56, ?+,I;3* >38016/,B16.,*-*.,:,7+-77-*/,*;3*-*.-;-.5,*</,=-**,*<:,.6-4;,*<:,+3*/,*!
51 Taken 33 Bijeenkomst 12 Sociale voorzieningen, onvoorziene gevolgen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
52 34 NA DE TWEEDE WERELDOORLOG Bijeenkomst 13 De Staat in de wereldeconomie 92 0( *2J / 3* 7B+* T81*12-,:1,@ 6?+ /,*9,-.=15;,6=,@,6,*<@B32*-,0;,,+0,6,890&3*;3*@,+-4@<-*.,436,*,*-*.,;61,/,436,*+,,@3++,7*1/2-*1>2,,6;1+/,*7.,;,6B3890-*/,*0,;,6+1!?,*<2336-*9,0.3361?;1+/,*.,.,8,**-52@6,,/.,B,6,+.N,*-*9,0:-4=1*.,6 /61,-,*-*.,436,*D=,+>7,,*9,57,C:112D<.-,,890,6-*.,=12,6;3*-*,+@336@+3?0,&;,6-/,*7B37-*3?3*9, ,.,8,**-52;3*.,0B-*0-/70,,,5B,6,,*;3*33*915.,*.,703/*30-,/,B,,70&,;116:-4,93+;,,,5BB,6./,@,*2,6@0.1169,;-/,,81*12-789,8H8+-.-,11@-*,.,6+3*.;1,+:336B36,*&E37.,703300,=B3@12.,@63890,*;3*.,236@00,:,! 9,,67,*<1>B36,*.,*-,0!3>+30,*.,?1+-0-,@,-*0,6;,*0-,7=,+>116=33@1>2,.,! 116=33@;3*.,,81*12-789,1*6570F 2,6@0&,9,6+,;-*/;3*.,-*0,6*30-1*3+,93*.,+-*.,*3!116+1/7,?,6-1.,7?6,,@0 -*.301?=-890:1,@.,+,*&*.,436,*DB,6.C/+1:3+-7,6-*/D=,+>7,,* 21.,B116. ;116 9,0 1*07033*;3* B30 B,6.;116/,70,+. 3+7,,*;1++,.-//,P*0,/6,,6., B,6,+.!,81*12-,&,/,+-4@,60-4.B36,*,6-*561?3@63890,*33*9,0B,6@129,0.1160B,,B,6,+.! 116+1/,*-*.-7@6,.-,0/,:63890,7H70,,2;3*.,561?,7,*30-,7030,*120,;162,* 010,,*9,890732,*B,6@-*/7;,6:3*.1>=,+>7,,*?1+-0-,@,,,*9,-.& 116;,+,*B36,*.-,0B,,1*0B-@@,+-*/,*.,0,@,*,*33*.,B3*.;116.,*30-,! 70330&-,=151?9,0?5*07033*0,;,6.B-4*,*<B,//,7?1,+.0,B16.,*.116.,0B,, C1*B,,67033*:36,D/1+;,*;3*?1+-0-,@,-*0,6*30-1*3+-7,6-*/,*,81*12-789,/+1:3+-7,! 6-*/&,;633/6-4701>.30/,,*3+0,7-2? ,;11670,++-*/;3*.,/3*/;3*=3@,* -7&7.,-*0,6*30-1*3+-7,6-*/,,*:,.6,-/-*/;116.,7030,*1>-7=-4.336,*0,/,*,,*.116.,7030,*/,;1+/.,70630,/-,1295*?1+-0-,@,2,091.,0,;,670,6@,**5.,,81!
53 Taken 35 Bijeenkomst 14 Nabeschouwing ,;,**33681*061+,9,,>09-4/,?61:,,6..,732,*+,;-*/;3*2,*7,*:-**,*=-4* :,78915B.<,,**1:,+,1*.,*,2-*/1>,,*:,06,56,*7B336.-/,;,6/-77-*/F 1?/,16/3*-7,,6.,B-4=,238901;,63*.,6,2,*7,*?61:,6,*5-00,1,>,*,*&,+3*/! 2,,:,/1**,*E30-79,06,890;3*2,*7,*F
54 36 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ESSENTIAL HISTORICAL BACKGROUND #16156?56?17, *;,*-,*001.-;-.,09,9-7016H1>561?,-*01096,,?,6-! 1.7& 9, >-670 7?3*7 3: *. H,367< >612 < B9,* 09,*7:,/3* 01,2,6/,3709,.12-*3*0-*0,++,8053+3* ,*06,1>6,,8,<01 &0-7 09,?,6-1. 1>3*0-G5-0H< 1> *8-,*0 6,,8, 3*. *8-,*0 12,& 9, 7,81*.?,6-1.< ,**-52+1*/<> < > *561?,&0:,! /3*3>0,609,81++3?7,1>09,E,70,6*2?-6,<B >>-8-3++H.30,.-*&*0930 H,36 09,,623*-8/,*,63+.13@,6.,?17,. 09, *,2?,616 3*..-.*10,;,*:109, H ,-2?, *,& 9, * >3-09 3* >-++,.09,/3?+,>0:H09,.-73??,363*8,1>09,-2?,6-3+7H70,271>3.2-* *<16! /3*-730-1*3*.81225*-830-1*&9,?,6-1.,*.,.B9,*09,123*95689B37758! 8,77>5++H 893++,*/,.:H 6,+-/-157 6,>162,67< 3*,B 78-,*0->-8 3*. 9523* ?-6-0 3/-030,.09,-*0,++, ,*,<3*.561?,3*21*36897,2:36@,.1*3?1+-8H1>3:! , 3*. 1> 81*G5,6-*/ 09,*,B+H.-781;,6,. 81*0-*,*07-* 7,3689 1> 6-89,73*.81+1*-,7&957< -7381*;,*-,*0.30,01236@09,:,/-**-*/1> 09,?,6-1.1>21.,6*-0H<B9-8981*0-*5, H& *09,*,I0?3/,709, 6,3.,6 B-++>-*.3* 150+-*, 1> 561?,3* H< B ! /-*3+6,>,6,*8,701-2?1603*009-*@,673*.8566,*071>0915/90&9,150+-*,+-707-*3 615/98961*1+1/ ,6712,1>09,23416,;,*073*.063*7> * ;,?+3H,.3?360-*09,/,*,7-71>09,B16+.-*B9-89B,*1B+-;,&9,> / *09,561?,3*81*0-*,*0<:50B9,*B,/,00109,*-*,0,,*093*.09,0B,*0-,09 8,*056H<-0B-++:,*,8,7736H016,>,601B93093??,*,.,+7,B9,6,& = *0+4 $$
55 37 THE FIRST MILLENNIUM ANTIQUITY (500 BC - AD 500) 39 GREECE : THE RISE AND FALL OF HELLAS. 320 BC-AD 150: THE PERIOD OF HELLENISTIC CULTURE ROME : THE ROMAN REPUBLIC : THE ROMAN EMPIRE THE SECOND MILLENNIUM A CHRISTIAN EUROPE : THE DARK AGES : ROMAN PRELUDE : THE ROMAN CHURCH AND THE FRANKISH RULERS : THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES 45 &" ECONOMIC GROWTH, CULTURE AND PHILOSOPHY LATE MIDDLE AGES : THE LONG DECLINE THE MODERN WORLD ( ) : THE EMERGENCE OF THE STATE 52 NEW WORLDS THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION THE RISE OF THE SECULAR STATE : THE MONARCHICAL STATE 56 THE AGE OF ABSOLUTISM NATIONAL ECONOMIES AND MERCANTILISM : THE CONSTITUTIONAL STATE 59 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND ITS AFTERMATH THE AGE OF NATIONALISM DIPLOMACY AND IDEOLOGY : CRISIS OF THE EUROPEAN STATES SYSTEM 65 THE FIRST WORLD WAR The Interbellum 66 THE TWENTIES
56 38 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND THE THIRTIES The second world war 69 DECOLONISATION AND INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS. COLD WAR AND OVERHEATED ECONOMIES EUROPEAN INTEGRATION ( )
57 39 THE FIRST MILLENNIUM ANTIQUITY (500 BC - AD 500) $.// 7: * 09, 6,,@ 81+1*-,7 -* 1*-3 J1* 09,,.-0,663*,3*813701>B930-7*1B56@,HK6-7,3/3-*70 09,?1B,6>5+,67-3*2?-6,&9,6,,@8-0-,7-*,++37?B < )@" <A J*1B6,,8,K1>>, *8,&9,,67-3*B367.63/1*>163:150>->0HH,3673*.,703: ,6,,@7<09,09,*-3*7-*? < ,81*12-8< H3* ?1B,6-* 09,,370,6*,.-0,663*,3*,3&./& <"<!3-*03-*-*/3*.81* */., * *7< 0 +!%."% C -7 09,,>>,80-;, 65+,6 1> 09,*7& *., ,< 09,*7 2+ %. % :,812,7 09, 2170?1B,6>5+ 8-0H-*,++37&,.-,7-* < 3 2 +!$.$$ ; > 09,?+3/5,< H 3>0,6 09,:,/-**-*/ 1> 09, +1*/ 81*>+-80B-09?36031;,609,9,/,21*H-*,++37&. &7,7,*0-*/09,*7O?1B,63*.-2?, ?1+-8-,7<109,68-0-,7,*0,6-* *B-09?3603&9,B36,*.7B-0909,.,>,301>09,*7-*&.3&"!&&!,752-*/ 09, B36 3/3-*70 09,,67-3*7<? ,7 01-2?17, H9,/,21*H1;,6,++37&9,109,68-0-,76,;1+0 5*.,609,+,3.,679-?1>9,:,& C+"." +#.! 9-+-??171>38,.1*-3-*0,6;,*,7-*09,3>>3-671>,++37&*09,:300+,1>93-! 61*,3JK9,.,>,30709,09,*-3*73*.09,9,:3*7<0957,*.-*/09,-*.,?,*.,*8,1>09, 6,,@8-0-,7&! D B < 09, 71* 1> 9-+-??17<,2:36@7 1* 3* ,I?,.-0-1* 3/3-*70,67-3<3*.-*,-/90H,36781*G5,6709,,363703*.+36/,?36071>,* *. 1609,6**.-3&,.-,7-*<3009,3/,1>09-60H!096,,&!"# $%%&$& $.<3$/!&&")&! >0,6 9-7.,309< +,I3*.,6O7,2?-6, -7.-;-.,. / +." 321*/ /,*,63+7< 712, 1> B912 >15*. 7588,77>5+ / <2%%.%%.H*370-,7 J09,,+,58-.7-* H6-3< 09, 01+,23-3*7-* /H?0< 3*.09,*0-/1*-.7-*38,.1*-3K&+,I3*.6-3<-*/H?0<-709,8122,68-3+8,*06,&! */09,27,+;, ,7<09,*,B38,.1*-3*,2?-6,7
58 40 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND +1*/3>0, ,37,.01?+3H3*H? , ,& '#&(% $.//%&"& ="6&> 3;-*/,I?,++,. 09, 09, 123*7 3.1?0 3 6,?5:+-83* 16 2-I,. >162 1>/1;,6*! 2,*0<-*B9-89., < *.21* ,+,2,*07 36, 812:-*,.&,8566-*/ 0,*7-1*7:,0B,,* 09,? *7 J*1:+,7K 3*. 09,?+,:,-3*7 J09,?116K 36,?, H 6,! 71+;,.:H09,3.1?0-1*1>81* *3+812?612-7,7&9,5?1*1-7?612! 5+/30,.3615*. &9,5D6 JK6,71+;,709,G5,70-1*1>09,?5: >09,?+,:,7<B917,377,2:+HJ :503K38G5-6,7?61?,6+,/3+703*.-*/&12,,703:+-79,7-07 9,/,21*H1;,609,6,701>03+H&./$/ ) *86,37-*/+H <09,123*7,*0,63+1*/?,6-1.1>B363/3-*7009,-623-*063.-*/?360*,6< 09, 8-0H 1> 36093/1 J-* B930-7*1B 5*-7-3K& 9,7, 5*-8 B367,*. B-09 09,.,! *1>36093/1<3*.123*9,/,21*H1;,609,E,70,6*,.-0,663*,3*7,3&.'%<3$/?&? 06->,321*/09,6,,@73*.09,38,.1*-3*7+,3.701-*0,6;,*0-1*:H09,123*7<B91 23@,38,.1*-3JK3*.,++37JK-*01123*?61;-*8,7&*09,7-3*0, ,7 812,5*.,6123*81*061+&9, *-709,:37-8?300,6*>1612,O7-2?, ?1+-8-,7 -* 7-3< B,70,6* 561?, 3*.*1609,6* >6-83& 123*/1;,6*16 3*. 123* +,/-1*7 65+, 09,?61;-*8,<:50/,*,63++H3:703-*>612.-6,80-*0,6;,*0-1* -*+183+3>>3-675*+, >,+001:,*,8,7736H>16> H3*.70630,/-8?56?17,7&.$/%&) 42+ %. % ( +%!. 1*0-*5157B36>36,3*.,I?,.-0-1*7-2?1;,6-7909,>362,673*.09,360-73*7B9136,5*! 3:+,0123-*03-*09,-6>36273*.?61>,77-1*3+7@-++7&9,H:,812,,;,6216,.,?,*.,*01*?5:+-8?1+-8H3*.+36/,77,&00,2?0701:,00,609,-6?17-0-1*09615/9+3*.6,>1621*+H,*.-*? ,.8-;-+B367& 6-;30,>362-*/-7/ H6,?+38,.:H09,23*3/,6-3+,I? *1>? J+36/, +3*.91+.-*/7< 6,75+0-*/ >612/63*07 1> 81*G5,6,. +3* ,,I?5+7-1* 1> -*.,:0,.>362,67K3*.09,-* *1>7+3;,+3:156&,?5:+-83*-72-7>5609,65*.,62-*,. :H 09,?61>,77-1* * 1> 09, 362H< B9-89 6,71+;,7 712, 1> 09,,81*12-8?61:+,27 1> 09,?116<:5023@,709, ,.,?,*.,*01*09, *.-*//,*,63+093*1*09, 1>>-8-3+/1;,6*-*/:1.-,7-* 12,& 9,/,*,63+7 J36-57< 5++3< < 12?,-57< ,736< *01*-57< 803;-3*57K 57, 09, ?7 01,*93*8, 09,-6?17-0-1*7-* 09,?1B, ,7-*09,8-0H1>12,-07,+>&9,?,6-1.,*.7-*B9,*803;-3*57,+-2-*30, ;3+7&-791*16->-8*32,-75/57057& /.@$/'%)!&& 1*03807 B-09 6,,8, +, >+1B,6-*/ 1> 123* ,<,7?,8-3++H-* 09, >-,+.7 1> 69,016-8<+-0,63056,<785+?056,<3689-0,8056,3*.2,.-8-*,& E9-+,1*3.-? *017,856, 123* *8,-*09,7065//+,73/3-*7038,!.1*-3<0B16,,@?9-+171?9,67-*061.58,09,123*7017?,85+30-;,0915/90&9,H36,-*>+5!
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
60 42 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND J! K-709,+370,2?,6161>09,5*->-,.,2?-6,& 9,2?-6,-7.-;-.,.-*3E,70,6*3*.3*370,6*?3605*.,609,71*71>9,1.1! 7-57& E9-+, 09, 370,6*?360 > ,7 3*. 81*0-*5,7 01,I-70 >16 3*109, *. H,367 J5* ?7 6,865-0,. >612 09,,623*-8?,1?+,7 1* 09,:16.,67 1> 09, 2?-6,& E9,* -*;3.,09,,2?-6,& " *03+H3*.09,15091>#63*8,<123*-*>+5,*8,72,3*B9-+,93;,:,,*,*06,*89,.75>! >-8-,*0+H 01?61.58, 3*,*.56-*/ 3++1!123* 8-; *<:50-* 09, 150,6*1609!B,70,6* 6,389,71>09,>162,6,2?-6,09,123*9,6-03/,.-73??, ?+,0,+H&957<3.-;-! 7-1*3??,367:,0B,,*30-*3*.,623* ,0930,*.56,70109,?6,7,*0.3H&
61 The Second Millennium 43 THE SECOND MILLENNIUM A CHRISTIAN EUROPE, - '.& $. 658->-I-1*1>,757& *-0H16-/-*30,7373,B-797,80-*,65! 73+,2& C:6-*/ , 63,81!123* B16+.&,-*;1@,7.-6,80 6,;,+30-1*6309,6093*3.9,6,*8,0109,,6573+, ,71568,1> H& CL ;,7-*12,<B9,6,09,3?170+,,0,66,?6,7,*0709,,6573+,295689&96-7! 0-3*76,>57,016,81/*-7,09,.-;-*-0H1>09,,2?,6163*.?6, *,1>09,91+-*,771>?1;,60H& 9,7,,+,2,*07 3*. 09, 7588,77 1> 09, 21;,2,*0 +, , >-670?,67,850-1* 1> *7-*5*.,609,,2?,616,61& 123*+,/-1*7.,7061H,6573+,2 3*.09,,2?+,1>3+121*<>168-*/09,,B7 1*8, 216,-*013-37?163<3*.23@-*/09,2-77-1*321*/09,/,*0-+,709,8,*06,1>09, * 21;,2,*0&12,:,812,709,7,301>09,>-670*1*!,B *895689&!9,/17?,+7J1>36@<3009,B<5@,3*.19*K36,812?17,.3*.36,63?-.+H38! 8,?0,.37.-;-*,+H-*7?-6,.38815*071>09,0,389-*/71>96-70&1/,09,6B O7,?-70+,7 3*.09,6,;,+30-1*0119*J.30-*/>61283& K<09,7,:,812,09,:37-80,I071> *-0H J@*1B*3709,,B,7032,*0K&! -;3+6HB-09109,6,370,6*6,+-/-1*73*.09,,2,6/,*8, 1>.->>,6,*0-*0,6?6,030-1*7 1> 09, 0,389-*/7 1> J16 35+K +,3.,36+H *-*0,++, * >309,67J K 0130! 0,2?0701.,>-*,09,065,.1806-*,1>09,>3-09J IHK3/3-*70 9,6,0-83+J23-*+H*170-8K0,389-*/7& B 4 / <B C!709,895689,I?3*.7<?,67,850-1*76,856>6120-2,010-2,< 5*0-+ 1*703*0-*, 09,6,301>>-8-3++H6,81/*-7,709, *>3-09-*09,.-801>1+,630-1*JK&./%?> &E9-+,09,81* *1>09,,0,6O *12,-7-* / <5C?61/6,77< 09, >-670/,*,63+ 16,852,* * ,+.-* -8,3 J-* B930-7*1B 56@,HK&9,6, ,3.,6706H01,703: *86,,.>1609,B91+,1> *-0H< 3*. 01 6,71+;, 09,-*063803:+, 09,1+1/-83+?61:+,27 81*8,6*-*/ 09, 6,+30-1*7 1> 09,#309,6< 09,1*3*.09,1+H?-6-0& &9,> ,671>21*@73*.*5*736,,703:+-79,.& & *-0H-76,81/*-7,.3709,1>>-8-3+6,+-/-1*1>09,,2?-6,& 3/3* , 150! +3B,.&009,15*8-+1>1*703*0-*1?+,<09,.1806-*,1>09,1+H6-5*-0H-73.1?0,.3709, >15*.30-1*1> *09,1+1/H& & 2:617-57< 09,:-791? 1> -+3*<,703:+-79,7 09, H1>09,895689B9,*09,,2?,6169, ?1+1/-7,7 +.% >16865,+0H-*9-7832?3-/*7-**1609,6*6,,8,& &?6<3.-78-?+,1>2:617-57<.-, H3>0,609,812?+,0-1*1>9-70
62 44 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND H3*.73+;30-1*09615/9>3-09&!&5)B <8+3-27!3*.-7/63*0,.:H-2?,6-3++3B!+,3.,679-?1;,609,B91+, 1> *-0H<09577,856-*/09,?6-238H1>09,-791?1>12,3709,#309,6J16 1?,K1> 09, & 9, B,70,6* 3*. 09,,370,6* JS6091.1ISK ,7:,/-* 01.6->0 3?360&,1?,6753., ,5*01B-09.63B>61203+H<3*.?6,;,*0709,:56*-*/1>12,:H09, 3*.3+7&,,703:+-79,709,61+,1>09,95689-*09,.-? *.? >>3-671>09,,2?-6,&!& 1?,B)? ,? J1*,7? <09,109,62-+-! 036H3*.? K3709,?6-236H81* *1>09, *B16+.09, *.B16+.+H 65+, 36, 7,?3630,:50 81!1?,630-*/-* *7<*,-09,6 1*, 75:16.-*30, , 109,6& 9, B,70,6* ,4,80709,83,7361?3?-705*-1*1>7030,3* ,2,6/-*/-* 09,H=3*0-*,,2?-6,&,'%&%$/0& $.?!& 9, 81++,80-;-70?1+-8-,7 3*. 1??6,77-;, 03I,7 1> 09, 123*,2?-6,-*-07 >-*3+ 703/, ?+,0,+H?5+;,6-7,.? *3*.063.,<+,3;-*/1*+H+183+? * 3H367K 3*. 09, J1167K< 1*+H >160->-,..123-*7 83*?6380-8, 3/ , 1* E9-+,09,E,70,6*2?-6,8652:+,7<2-77-1*36-,781*;,6009,,623*-8?,1?+, *! 0-*5,017,00+,-*0109,71509,6*<B,70,6*3*.8,*063+6,/-1*71>561?,J5*0-+83&K& 30! <09, *-! 730-1*1>B,70,6*3*.2170?36071>8,* ?,-7812?+,0,& 81*;,60,.&!& 1?,B B 706,*/09,*709,?17-0-1*1>09,123*895689<3* ,8-0H1>12,373?3?3+,7030,& ++1B-*/09,6,;,+30-1* ,.<,36+-,6-*09,8,*056H<09,63?-.,I?3*7-1*1> )6,.58,709, *-*>+5,*8,,3701>H=3*0-52<-**1609,6*>6-83<3*.?3-*&9,,.-0,663*,3*, *30,.:H57+-2?1B,67&.@# /4/# H <+1;-781* >3++-3&E9,*9,.-,7-* <09,0, ,736,.-;-.,.5*!.,6 9-7 >156 71*7<:50 09,7, 81*0-*5, 01 B16@ 01/,09,6 5*.,6 09,/5-.3*8, 1> 09, & *0-+ 09,#63*@-79,2?-6,J5*.,69,5.,:,603* K3??,36701:,09,065, 7588,7716 1> 09, E,70,6* 123* 2?-6,& 9,* 09,.H* //+,7?+5*/, B,70,6* 3*. 8,* ?,-*3+1*/?,6-1.1>B360930B,3@,*709,?17-0-1*1>09,@-*/3*.706,*/09,*7 09,?17-0-1*1>09,/6, J>, HK&! & -7, 1> 09, 361+-*/-3* >32-+H , -2?1603*0?170 1> * & * < 1*, 1> -07.,78,*.3*07<936+,7360,+.,>,30709,57+-27*,36 1-! 0-,67< *03-*-*/ 09, 63?-. 3.;3*8, 1> 7+32 > ?,3*:37,-*?3-*& )?2*+!! & +!"."
63 The Second Millennium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
64 46 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 7588,77>5+6,>16271>09, ,+>&-+.,:63*.<09,3::101>09,3::,H1>+5*H<?61?3! /30,709,6,>1627&,706,77,..-78-?+-*,<?-,0H3*.+3:156M3*.8,* *1> ! 0-;-0-,7-*09,93*.71>09,?1?,& & 12, 7,;, ,7 B-09 09, H=3*0-*,95689&3703*.E,7036,*1B *10 1*+H? H : ,+-/-157+H 7,?3630,.&! & 7588,77-1* 1>?1?,7 06-,7 01 5*.1 09, -2?,6-3+ -*>+5,*8, -* 09,?618,771>7,+,80-1*1>09,?1?,&9,?1?, :,,+,80,. :H 09, 836.-*3+7 -* 3 7,86,081*8+3;,&-+.,:63*.<65+-*/37 1?, B &))J! K<-* , :,09,? =,63-*1> 09, *65+,67<:,8357,1>09,?6-16-0H 1> 7? ,67 1;,6?56,+H B16+.+H = 16<'/ %% 1> 71;,6,-/*0H -*01? ,& 9, */,*15/9 01 >168, 7, *8,77-1*7 >612 09,,2?,616:50 > ,;,-07/13+& 9, 81*>+-80,*.7 B-09 09, 1* > E1627-* < 3 812?612-7, ,00+,7*1*, 1> 09, >5*.3! 2,*03+G5,70-1*7&.% 3>>3-67& 9-7:-. >16 B16+.+H 1;, ? +, , > *>+-80:,0B,,* 1?, 3*. 2?,616< 3*.-*061.58,7 09, 81*8,?0 / <2 +%.%$ &9,56@703@,,6573+,2&9,-63.;3*8,>168,709,H=3*0-*,,2?, ,,@37! 7-703*8,-* 09, E,70& 9, ,,@7 01,I? *,B+H B1* H:H 83++-*/ 09, B,70,6**1:-+-0H ,0181*G5,609,1+H3*.&!&9,> ,-77588,77>5+3*.+, ! +-;, *@-*/.12-*,6573+,2 J!K& 1*0380 B-09 9-/9+H.,;,+1?,.3*.6,>-*,.9,++,*-7,.63:85+056,&!&,;, , ,7 36, 16/3*-7,.:50/,*,630, <+ *+$#%.%" * 9+!.$# 216, H 3*. 8122, * 6,+-/-157,* &# < * 7061*/91+.-7,703:+-79,.-*@@1*J*1B1*09,*1609,6*813701>763,+K&# ,6,-7,;,*330-*,2?-6,-*09,370J5*.,63+.B-*1>#+3*.,67K<:50-0.1,7*10?61!.58, 3 6,81* * 1> 09,,370,6* 3*. B,70,6* ,7& 9, , , ,,703:+-792,*0 1> 6+. <.-;,67,6,+-/-157! H16.,67J9,*-/9071>09,,2?+,<9,*-/9071>3-*019*<9,,623* 16,501*-86.,6<,08&K ?-.+H:,812,-2?1603*0<?1B,6>5+ 3*. B,3+09H-*! *7-*09, *B16+.&9,-*06-830,81.,71>81*.580>1609,7,@*-/907-*35/5630, 09,/,1>9-;3+6H&.!&&"&> 6=! & 360+H-*6,380-1*3/3-*7009,B,3+093*.?1B,61>09,95689<?360+H37381*! 7,G5,*8,1>09,86573.,7<09,6,-736,756/,*8,1>9,6, ;,2,*07&9, ,77>5+ 36, 0917, 1> 09, E3+.,*7,7 JB91?6,389 3?56, > , 09, *. 3*,I06,2,+H 378,0-8+->,K<3*.1>09, :-/,*7,7J3>0,6+:-<301B*-*09, >#63*8,K<B916,;-;,*170-83*.3*-893,3*-.,37JB ;-;,.-*09,370<,7?,8-3++H-*5+/36-3K& = 0
65 The Second Millennium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
66 48 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 12:36.H&9,>32157>3-671>932?3/*,:,812,7H2:1+71>16.,6+H063.,3*.,81*12-8 /61B09&63.,,*81563/,709,:5-+.-*/1>8-0-,7<3*.8-0-,7,*81563/,3/ ,3*.2-*-*/ :H?61;-.-*/150+,07>16756?+57? *3*.1??1605*-0-,7> */09,+-;-*/703* >09,6563+?1?5+30-1*&63.,3+71,*81563/,77?, *3*.09,.-;-7-1*1>+3:1563*. 0,89*1+1/-83+-**1;30-1*&9,6, ?1?5+30-1*83*-*86,37,3* ,;-++3/,736, 09,?1+.,67& 9,8-0-,783**10:,-*816?1630,.-*0109,.123-*!:37,.>,5.3+7H70,2&1701>09,2:,! 812, >6,, 8-0-,7M ,H.,;,+1? 09,-6 1B* 3.2-* ;,< 8122, *. >-*3*8-3+ -* *7< +3B ?, */-* 8122, *. 86, *7380-1*7< 3*.< *! 7? H<816?1630-1*71>360-73*7J09,/5-+.7K3*.+,3/5,71>2,6893*07J>16,I32?+,< 09, 3*=,K&9,1+1/-3*736,81*75+0,.1*09,>15*.30-1*71>?61?,68122,68-3+3*.,81*12-8 K32:-/5157+H377, ,4570?6-8,-7,-09,609, +,/ H& 9,?6380-8, 1> 5756H J8936/-*/-*0,6,70 1* +13*7 1> 21*,HK-7 81*!.,2*,.<:5009,?619-:-0-1*-73009,732,0-2,G53+->-, *,I0,* ,.-0! 063*7380-1*7,37-+H?37709,0,701>?61?6-,0H&. >"<=> 9, 361+-*/-3*,*3-773*8, 1> 09,*-*09 8,*056H 3*. 09, 001*-3*,*3-773*8, 1> 09, 09, 0B,+>09 8,*056H< 09,1+1/H< +3B 3*. 2,.-8-*, 36, 705.-,.& 3B 705.-,7 36,:37,. 1* 09, ; 1>09,,2?, *-3*& 9, 705.H 1> 09,1+1/H 63?-.+H:,812,7-*;1+;,. B-09 09, 705.H 1> 09,?9-+171?9,67 1> *0-G5-0H< 23-*+H ,& 3*H 1> ;, 812, 01 09, E,70-* 30-* 063*7+30-1*7 J1>0,*;-3?3-* 3*. 09, -..+, 370< B9,6, 09, 63:7 93;, 812,-*01 81*0380B-0909,,++,*-70-89,6-03/,3*..,;,+1?,.3> */ *.-*0,++, >, 0930/6,30+H-2?6,77,7B,70,6*063.,673* ,67K& 212 ""4% $.3&">!& 0 7,, ,?1?, 937 B1* 09, 0B1 95*.6,. H,367065//+,>1675?6,238H-*561?,<: *056* , :,,*81665?0,.216,093*706,*/09,*,.<3* ". 3+%%. % ,7J,7?,8-3++H 09,#6,*89K 93;,:,,* >-/90-*/ 216, 3/3-*70 09,,2?, * >16 09,?1?,&* 1?,1*->38,-703@,*?6-71*,6:H 9-+-?09,#3-61>#63*8,<B91 3>0,609,.,3091>9-71??1*,*06,21;,709, 3?3+,,>61212,01;-/*1*<0957,*756! -*/.-6,8081*061+1;,609,380-1*71>09,?3?38H&*3?,6-1.1>+-00+,216,093*>->0HH,367 :10909,,2?-6,3*.09,?3?38H93;,:,,*6,.58,.017,81*.36H?+3H,67& & 9,/6, >,623*H 81*70-050, 09,(?/ < B9-89 B-++ 9,*8,>1609,+,8009,,2?,616&."!&9,,*.1>09,O3:H+1*-3*,I-+,O1>09,?1?,-*;-/*1*-7>1++1B,.:HG536!
67 The Second Millennium 49 6,+7 :,0B,,* 1?, 6:3*57 3*. 09, 836.-*3+7 B91,+,80 3*109,6?1?,&9,7,0B16-;3+?1?,736,.,?17,.-*3009, 15*8-+ 1> -73< B9,6, +,I3*., ,*& 1B 09,6, 36, 096,,?1?,7& *+H 3>0,6 09,-*0,6;,*0-1* 1> 09,,2?, , 15*8-+ 1> 1*703*= J!K ?61:+,2 6,71+;,.<:50 ( + B +!.$K (+%.! 109,6?61:+,27 6,23-*& 00,2?07 01;,70 09, 75?6,2, H 1;,6 09, * 09, 15*8-+16+,3.*1B9,6,&9,,370,6*6091.1I956896, ,2?07016,5*->H B-0912,&! &9,15*8-+1>1*703*=236@709,,*.1>09,2,.-,; 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
68 50 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND <B >-,709,-6?1B,63*.6,7063-*709301> (:?3-*O7,36+H9-7016H-7.12-*30,.:H09,1885?30-1*:H09,1167JB91,703:+-7909, 3+-?930,1>16.1:3-*K&*+H-*09,*1609<370-++,<3;36633*.63/1*6,23-*5*., *65+,&9,H7, ,81*G5,609,B91+,1>09,:,6-3*,*-*75+3& !?+-79,.:H <,I8,?0>1609,71509<B9-896,23-*75*.,609,81*061+1>09,1167-*63! *3.3& 3&"&&" &:9,:37-71>09,61H3+?1B, >1623++H0-,.0109,?6-*8-?+,71>>, <-&,&09,3++,/-3*8,1>09,/6, <-* * ,1> *,B 3*..->>,6,*0 7H70,2 1> 65+,< 57-*/?3-. >5*80-1*36-,7 J:56, K6309,6093*09,5*8,603-*+1H3+0-,7 1> 09, >, & 9-7 *,B 7H70,2 B-++ / H 7?6, / < 561?,<3*..-7?+38,? >, &083*.63B1*,;,6-*86,37-*/*52:,671>/63.5! 30,7>61209,5*-;,67-0-,7&,6H711*<09,@-*/7B ,23*H1>09,7,-*0,++, , 63*@71>09,*1:-+-0HJ K&9,H:,812, *.? ;3+71>09, ! 036H HJL>>K&.<>")!&C)&= 1>#63*8,@,,?71*-*86,37-*/9-7?1B,630912,M , :6-*/09,1+H123*2?-6,5*.,6#6,*89 81*061+< 3*. 01,703: ,+> 37 09, 610,80161>09,#3-09&7@-+>5+? *<9,6,+-,79,3;-+H1*6,?6,7,*030-;,377,2:+-,7 01/36*,675??160>169-7?1+-8-,7<03I-*86,37,73*.5* I2,3756,71>63-7-*/21*,H&,.,:3589,7 09, 8566,*8H 3*. 81*>-7830,7 09, B,3+09 1> 09, < 09,,B7 JB912 9,,*.7 5?,I?,++-*/ >612#63*8,K< 3*. 09, *-/907,2?+36 JB912 9,?,67,850,7-* ,77B3HK&!& 9-+-?/,0709,+370B16.-*9-781*>+-80B-09 1?,1*->38,<B9,*9,3?!?1-*07 09, +300,6O7 7588,7716 3*. 21;,7 09, 3?3+,, 01 ;-/*1*< B9,6,-0 6,23-*7 5*0-+ &9,?6,70-/,1>09,?1?,7-7?,623*,*0+H.323/,.&! &16 M, :,0B,,**/+3*.3*.#63*8,:6,3@71501;,609,6,! 23-*-*/*/+-79?177,77-1*7-*09,71509!B,701>#63*8,&9,>-670?937,1>09,B ! 8,77>5+ >16 */+3*.& 9, */ ,#6,*89@-*/ 19* /,< 3*.#63*8,-7 :56.,*,.B-0939,>0H63*712&81* H.,?6,77,.#63*8,-70615:+,.:H?,373*05?6-7! -*/73*.09,-*.,?,*.,*0?1+-8-,71>09,5@,71>56/5*.HB9138G5-6,#+3*.,67<109,6?36071>09,1B15*06-,73*.-2:56/3*.5I,2:156/£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
69 The Second Millennium 51 *,*0+H-2?3-6,.:H09,79->001 3>6,,+3:156<21*,036H,81*12H& 9,?1B, I< 6309,6 093*>,5.3+?6-;-+,/,<:,812,709,23-*71568,1>63-7-*/6,;,*5,>1609,861B*& 0.) 81;,67 56/5*.H >16 09, 861B*& J9,#+,2-79?3607/ ,,2?,616O7 71*< 3I-2-+-3*&K #63*8,-7*1B6,3.H>163:71+50,61H3+?1B,6& & :**/+3*.<09,B36+,3.7016,;1+07:H09,*1:+,7B9136,5*B-++-*/01:,3609, :56.,*1>09, ,7&>0,609,B36<09,7,6,;1+07-*0,*7->H<?-00-*/09,65+-*/ +3*03/,*,0 K&,*6H5! ?97 3*. 3/3-* 706,*/09,*7 09, 861B*& *.,6 09, J! K*/+3*.:,812,73*3:71+50,21*3689H-*3++:50*32,& ( &: *?3-*< 3>0,6 +1*/ H,367 1> 81*>+-80:,0B,,* 09,*1:+,7 3*. 09, :56/9,67<09,3++-3*8,:,0B,,*:56/9,673*.@-*/06-52?97&370-++,3*.63/1*36,5*-0,.:H 09,2366-3/,-*1>#,6.-*3*.1>63/1*3*.73:,+1>370-++,&*<63* *! G5,6,.3*.?3-*011-76,3.H>163:71+50,21*3689H& 1605/3+937:,,*3*-*.,?,*.,*0@-*/.127-*8,&* ,77>5++H6,7-7073*! *,I30-1*:H09,,I?3*.-*/@-*/.121>63/1*&-*/6 <4 J!K<7,*7-*/ /3+O7>5056,-7-*18,3*!/1-*/063.,J09,,.-0,663*,3*-73009,0-2,81*061++,.:H 09,56@7K<?61210,709,:5-+.-*/1>79-?73*.09,705.H1> ,78-,*8,73*./,1/63!?9H& 6&>:*03+H<1*09,109,693*.<09,;1-.+,>0:H09,81++3?7, 4*!". " 1> 09,-2?,6-3+?1B,6<-7 >-++,.:H 815*0+,77-*.,?,*.,*0?6-*8-?3+-0-,7 3*. 8-0-,7 J3;1H,! -,.21*0<-+3*<,*-8,<#+16,*8,<,*13<3?+,7<09, 3?3+0, ,7K&9,7,36,-*81*! 0-*53+81*>+-803*.6,23-*;3+53:+,?6-=,7>16>16,-/*J#6,*89<?3*-79K?6-*8,73*.09,,2!?,616< B91 81*0-*5, 01 2,..+,-* 03+-3*? & -8-+H-7-*?3*-79 93*.7 J63/1*K& 9, B367-*03+H36,>15/90:H2,68,*36-,7J K 3*. 81* H 1> +1*/ 7-,/,7 6309,6 093*38053+:300+,7J09,2,68,*36-,7/1>1609,63*71221*,H6309,6093*>16:+11.K&! &,3*B9-+,-*09,,370<09,56@736,3.;3*8-*/70,3.-+H1*561?,3*71-+3*. -*0109,3+@3*<-*86,37-*/09,?6,7756,1*H=3*0-52&9,370,6*123*2?-6,:,812,7.,?,*.,*01*09,5+03*3*.>-*3++H81++3?7,7B9,*1*703*0-*1?+,-07,+>-703@,*J-* K&
70 THE MODERN WORLD ( ) ""78/ = <" 6 <: I?+16-*/ 09, >6-83* 81370< 09, 1605/5,7, ,1-3= 73-+7?3703?,11.1?,J K<09571?,*-*/36150,0109,370&*< ,389,7*.-33*.1?,*709,> ?,3*063.-*/?170709,6,&30,6-*09,8,*056H< 09, 1605/5,7,6,3899-*33*.3?3*& *<09,,*13*96-701? :57<06H-*/01>-*.3E,70,6*6150,01*.-3<.-7! 81;,672,6-83<+3*.-*/1* 09,36-::,3*7+3*.7 3*.-* -..+, 2,6-83& * < 3: ;,6763=-+&! &9, 1605/5,7,3/,+93, *.09,B16+.& &9,?3*-79(:,/-*7&160,781*G5,6709,=0,83*.109,6*.-3*@-*/.127 -*,I-81&* < = &: * 09, 7-I0,,*09 8,*056H<?3-* 3*. 1605/3+.12-*30,09,,I?3*7-1*&-I-*/063.,<81*G5,703* *36H380-;-0-,7<09,H 06H01,I? *-0H3*.01-2?160/1+.3*.,I10-87?-8,73*.360,>3807& H<216, 3*.216,561?,3*721;,0109,81+1*-,7-*7,36891>6-89,73*.3.;,*056,& */+3*.<#63*8, 3*. 09, 5089,?5: * -* 09, 81+1*-3+,I?3*7-1*& 9, */ ,? H 380-;,& 9,H,I?+16, ,6-83 J098,*056HK<3*.+30,609, >-8B9,6, */+3*. /, > J< 32,7 11@K 3*.,B',3+3*.& , * :,812,736,>5/,>16?,67,850,.2-*16-0-,7> ;,6561?,<B9,6,09,B3671>6,+-/-1*36,-* >5++ 7B-*/& 9, 81+1*-3+,I?3*7-1* 1> 6, *81*0-*5,75*0-+09,,*.1>09,*-*,0,,*09 8,*056H&H ,<*/+3* ?1B,6 1*3++09,81*0-*,*07,I8,?015092,6-83& %$ '$ $.@&) " 6= 9,>3++1>09,H=3*0-*,2?-6,0109,56@7< -* <+,3.7013*,I1.571>6,,@7?,3@-*/ -*0,++, * < 09, -*9, *..,78,*.3*071>,++,* ; *&03+H-709,.-6,80 :,*,>-8-36H 1> *>+5,*8,& 9, B,70
71 The Modern World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
72 54 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND,703*07& H<09,7,6,+-/-157/615?793;,3?61>15*.-2?3801*2,6-83*+->,& = = ) $%&$$ $."& 9,> >1>09,7-I0,,*098,*056H-7 236@,.:H.H*370-8 B367:,0B,,* 09, 3:7:56/,2?, ,7 3*. 09,#6,*89@-*/7< B91:109 7,,@ 81*061+ 1> 03+H 3*. 09, :,0B,,*03+H3*.09,1B15*06-,7J56/5*.H<,0=K&9,6,-73+71B36-*09,36,31>09, ,3 321*/ B,.,*<,*236@< 1+3*. 3* & 9,* 09,6,-7 09, B36 3/3-*70 09, 56@7< B91 36, 701??,. 30 -,**3<: ?H?3607 1> 5*/36H& 9,7, B367 0,* ,*/09,*09,?17-0-1*71>09,@-*/7<B9181*0-*5,0121;,01B36.73*1?,*3: & (:936+,7 J@-*/ 1>?3-*< ,7,623*,2?,616K.-76,/ ,( J37! 7,2:+H 1> 09,*1:-+-0H 3*.:56/9,67K& -7 71* C)) J! K-7 09, 2170 >162-.3:+, 21*3689 1> 9-7 3/,< 81*061++-*/ 81+1*-, ;,6 09, B16+.&?3-*:,812,7 09, +,3.-*/ *30-1*&065+,709,,.-0,663*,3*7,3<93;-*/.,7061H,.09,56@-79>+,,03009,:30! 0+,1>,?3*01J K&1B,;,6< 9-+-?O7,>> *G5,6*/+3*.>3-+J-* 09,?3* B6,8@,.:H *. */+-79-*/,*5-0HKM 3*. 9-7/,*, , 5*3:+, 01?50.1B*09,6,;1+0-*09, 610,703*01B15*06-,7JB ,0-2,B,6,5*.,609,?3* B*K&>0,6 &= )6,-/*7373*3:71+50,21*3689&-7>16,-/*3.;,*056,7-*03+H 36,+,777588,77>5+&,83**10:6,3@09,75?6,238H1>936+,7-*03+-3*? &! &,*6H7588,77>5++H6, ,7O300,2? ?H,0=<0957> */ 09,,2?,616O7?1+-8H1>,*8-68+-*/#63*8,B-093:7:56/?177,77-1*7& & :E :1+-79-*/ ,*0< 09, 5.16@-*/7-* */+3*. J6 <&)))<! <9-7.35/90,6/)<!K65+,; H5*89,8@,.& B,.,*J5*.,65703;E373<! <3* ,77167K3*.577-3J5*.,6B3*09,,66-:+,<! K03@,09,-6?+38,321*/09, ?,3*?1B,67&.&) >:! &,7?-0, 936+,7 O7 32:-0-1* 01 6,7016, < 09, 56@ ,307@,,?709,,623* 610,703*073* ,16+,7701/,09,6<:50-* 09,,2?,61621;,73/3-*7009, 610,703*07-**1609,6*,623*H&-77588,77,736,5*.1*,B-09 09,9,+?1> ,*,2H<09,,G53++H ,*6H1> #63*8,& H*370-8-*0,6,707 8+,36+H.12-*30, 1;,6 6,+-/ H3+0-,7& 9, 5/7:56/ &9,0B *36897<#63*8-7 1>#63*8, 3*. 936+,7 <:300+,, ,6 3:613.< B9-+,.,>,*.-*/ 09, > ,?*8-7 57, ?? *86,37,9-7?1B,61;,609,#6,* &! &,*6H81*0-*5,709,B363/3-*70936+,7<3* ,?,67,850-1* 1> 09, 610,703*07 J23*H 1> 09,2 *1:+,709,71!83++,.5/5,*107K& & 9, @, 1> 5-7,-7 09,.6-;-*/ >168, :,9-*.09,?,67,850-1*&*.,609,6,/,*0,77( 4<,*6HO7 B-.1B< 09, 6,+-/ *>+-80,783+30,7-* ;-+ B360930B-++81*0-*5,5*0-+09,,*.1>09,8,*056H &*09,*-/901>5/570<23*H091573*.71>5/5,*107 36, ,.J09,-*>32157-?2 K& & >0,6 09, 256.,6 1>,*6H < 09, 610,703*0,*6H 1> 4+.$ 5>+ %.! + $.$!K
73 The Modern World 55 3;3663-7>-670-*+-*,>1609,7588,77-1*&1>16, ,:,++-1*9,:,812, ! +-8J K<:50/5363*0,,7,G53+6-/ ,5/5,*107J.-801>3*0,7< K&,*6H3* ,>2-*-70,65++H?61?17,3?+3*>163/,*, *8,1> *65+,67-*561?,&!& *.,6 15-7%< 36.-*3+':,812,7 09, 89-,>3689-0,801>#6,*89?1+-8H&,21;,701B36.78,* * 3*.3: <3*.81*0-*5,709,3*0-!3:7:56/81567,1>09,#6,*89& = () = 3* ( 0 + $!.! % 9)%:!&1/<M :*.,6 9-+-?1>?3-*09,?,67,! 850-1*1>3+;-* ,703*07-*0,*7->-,7&9,6,-736,;1+0<B9-89,783+30,7-*011?,*6,:,+! +-1* B9,* 09,?3*-79/1;,6*16< +;3<,I,850,7 +,3.,67 1> 09, +183+*1:-+-0H&E >63*/,3*.<3>0, ,6-* <9-7 71*<356-8,<81*0-*5,09,B36B-09712,9,+?1>*/+3*.& + ".!# B + #.! 9,*1609,6* 6,/-1*7 J1'? 2* H C *. 63?-.+H:,812,3+,3.-*/ H<8122,68-3+3*.81+1*-3+?1B,6& 1B,;,6< 09, 71509,6* X,+/-3*Y 6,/-1*7 6,23-* 5*.,6 09, >-62 81*061+1> 9-+-?&;,*-*09,,?5:+-8<6,+-/-1*81*0-*5,70175??+H 3?6,0,I0>1681*>+-80&*,; ,> / B >+,,09,815*06H<7,,@-*/6,>5/,-* #63*8,<3*.,36*-*/3+-;-*/373.-?+1230>1609, 610,703*0B,.-7921*3689H& & :! &**/+3*.<09,?6-*8-?+, 1> + > "#. 7?, H& 9,,703:+-792,*0 1> 09, */+-83*95689:H,*6H3*.1> 09,?-781?3+-3*95689J3812?612-7,:,0B,,* 610,703*0 09,1+1/H3* ?6380-8,K:H.B36.<-7>1++1B,.:H 36, *1> *.,6+11.H36HJ09,B->,1> 9-+-?1>?3-*K&!&, * 1> 09, */+-83* *.,6 +-73:,09 &!& 9, /, 1> : * */+3*. /,07 5*.,6 B3H B9,* 09, ,7 1> 810+3*. 7588,, , */ *, 37 ; ) J9,*8,09,*-0,.-*/.12K& * 9-7 H , , 09,09,16H1>09,.-;-*,6-/907 ;)+!!.! 5 (+.! =+!.!! 1>@-*/ B*& 9, 05360@-*/7 J32,7 < 936+,7 <!K 23@, 61H3+ 3: ,-6 1>> * *3+?1+-8H& 1B,;,6< 1??17-0-1* 01 3: ,23-*7 7061*/< 3*. 300,2? ,/36.?36+-32,*01609,81221*+3B+,3.018-;-+B36&!& >0,6 09,.,83?-030-1* 1> 936+,7-* < 09, 56-03* 610,703*07 812, 01?1B,65*.,63* ( <:5009,6,;1+50-1*36H?, @,.:H2-++,*36-3*3/-030-1* J63*0,67<.-//,67K3*..-77,*0&!& 9, 6,;1+50-1*-7 >1++1B,.:H , * 5*.,6 936+,7 3*. 32,7 & >0,6 0930< 09,?6-*8-?+, 1> 01+,630-1*-7 388,?0,. > ,703*0 7,807 J:50*10 >16 3! K& 6+ ##.!"$ 5+!."%! :!& 9, 1 < M & 9, 6,+-/-157 7,00+,2,*0 1> 5/7:56/ J K >-*3++H.-7-*0,/630,7-* & 1B,;,6< 9,6, 216, 093*,+7,B9,6,< 09, 6,! 75+0-*/B ?+,I2-I056,1>-*0,6*3+3*.,I0,6*3+? *.6,+-/ ;,7&* 09,1*,93*.<09,6,-709,6-;3+6HB-09#63*8,3*.09,7065//+,1;,609,81*061+1>09,3+0-8
74 56 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND,3&*09,109,693*.09,6,-709,,*.,2-88,*06->5/3+>168,1>,623*? J1??17-0-1* 013*H-*86,37,-*09,,2?,616O7?1B,6K8357,.:H09,9,0,61/,*,-0H1>09,23*H?,1?+,73*. 6,/-1*3+-*0,6,707-*09,,2?-6,& 9, ,2?,616#,6.-*3*.<3++-,.B-09?3-*<7588,77>5++H>-/90709, 610,703*071* 3++>61*07&1B,;,6<B9,*B*))? 09, 610,703* *8,<75:7-.-7,.:H #63*8,<09,0-.,71>B36056*&9,01++1>09,B36-7,* /,?36071>,623*H36,; H.,?1?5+30,.&.7& &9,150812,1>09,B :703*0-3+6,.63B-*/1>09,? ?71>561?,& #63*8,3*.B,.,*/3-*75:703*0-3+0, ,73009,,I?,*7,1>09,3:7:56/2?-6,<B9-+, 83*0;-8016-*,623*H-7=.<09,+,80161>63*.,*:56/<B91B-++711*758! K>5++H-*.,?,*.,*01>09,,2?-6,&.&"& 'L> J,&/&09,836.-*3+7-89,+-,53*.3=36-*-*#63*8,K&I8,?0-*03+H<09,? ,1>09,?1?,-7>-*-79,.&9,65+-*/?6-*8-?+,3*.09,+,/ *1>65+,-7*1+1*/,609,.,>,*8, 1>09,>3-09<:5009, L>J09,-*0,6,701>09,7030,<,7?,8-3++H-*-07.,3+-*/7B-09109,6 7030,7K&0-7-2?+,2,*0,.:H J09, *1>817073*.:,*,>-07-*0,6271> /3-*73*.+177,71>? ?1B,6K&*? /90<09-72,3*7379->01>,2?937-7>612?6-*8-?+,01,I?,.-,*8HJ HK& 1B,;,6<->09,? ,1>09, >-*-79,.<09,? ,1> 6,+-/ /90-7*10&,8357, I *-0H3??, *H01 9,6,0-83+< 6,+-/-1*7 3*. 3++-,.?9-+171? H70,27& 9, > > 1> C H 09,7,;,*0,,*098,*056HH-, ;,70-*501?-3*+-0,63056,&0+11@7>16B !?+,0,+H*,B>1621> *.? ,I-70,*8,<:37,.*101*09,5.3,1! *!123* *10-1*7 1> 81;,*3*0<?61?,60H< 81* *.*,-/9:156+H +1;,<:50 1* 3 2,03?9H *. 2H70-83+*10-1*1>>5*.32,*03+5*-0H3*.5*-;,673+:6109,6911.& "7" (&$' $.<& &)C A!& 9,?,6-1. 1> 09, 8-;-+ B36 J!K,*.7 09, 3: ,I?,6-2,*0 1> 32,7 3*. 936+, , 212,*0 6+ ##.!"$ B9,*3: ,389, H1*09,81*0-*,*0&*/+3*.-7*1B36,?5:+-8<:50-* 612B, , ?1B, ,8016 1> */+3*.< 810+3*. 3*. 6,+3*.& */+3*.:,812,709,> ,?1B,6<3>0,6-07B36B-0909,5089,?5:+-8&!&* < 09, ,056* 01 09, 0961*,& 936+,7 06-,7 01 6,!,703:+-79 3: ,<: , , !."% 01 >+,, 01 #63*8,< B9,* 09, 610,703*0 E > 63*/,< 3 -+!."" /63*.71*1>936+,7<+3*.7-**/+3*.&9,B '*&! &9,0?',703:+-79,73*,B81* *<B */?36+-32,*!
75 The Modern World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
76 58 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 8$%''%$' $. "" &> 9, ?1603*0,>>,80 1> 09, 06-52?9 1> 3: ,,2,6/,*8, 1>*30-1*3+,81*12-,7& *. 8-0-,7 36,.,?6-;,. 1> > 09, *12H< 1>0,*-*8+5.-*/ ; *1?1+H 1> > *. 6,/5+3016H?1B,67& 957< 09,? * 1> +183+?5: ,80-;,/ ?3-6,.< B9-+,*30-1*3+?5:+-8/11.7 J23-*+H S.,>,*8,S< 0, *. 81+1*-3+,I?3*7-1*<: * ;, 5*->-830-1*K 36, 9,3;-+H 75:7-.-7,.& 183+.,;,+! 1?2,*0-7-*86,37-*/+H.,?,*.,*01*-076,+,;3*8,>16*30-1*3+?1+-8H&81* ?,0-0-1* >16?,1?+,< 83?-03+ 3*. 063.,/-;,7 B3H ?,0-0-1* >16 61H3+ >3;1567& 9,7, 0,*. 01:, /-;,*1*?56,+H? /615*.7<3* H-*>5*80-1*1>09,61H3+?1+-8H1>09,212,*0&.& 2,683*0-+-72&E9-+,09-70,6275//,70712,71601>S09,16HS16S7H70,2S<-06,3++H6,>,67013* 1??1605*-70-8?1+-8H 1>.-;,60-*/ *,H 01 09, 06,3756H 37-7? H >,37-:+,& O5++-1*-72O< 3 0H?-83+ 2,683*0-+-70?1+-8H<-7 01 >3;156 09,,I?160 1>/11.7 J09,-2?160 1> /1+.K<3*.01.,0,609,-2?1601>/11.7J09,,I?1601>/1+.K&36->>7 7-?91* 1>> 3 7-=,3:+,?360 1> 09,/1+. 6,8,-;,.-*?3H2,* , 06,3756H<:5036,,37-+H 3;1-.,.:H 725//+-*/& *109,6?1+-8H-7 09, /63*0-*/1>21*1?1+-,7<B B09,21*1?1+-703*.09,06,3756H C< 2+".$% 01.-;-.,09,21*1?1+H6,*07321*/7009,27,+;,7<:5009-7?1+-8H011-71>0,*75:;,60,.:H -++,/3+? * J09, S:+38@ 236@,0S 16 S793.1B,81*12HSKɤ 09,?1-*0 1>;-,B 1> /,*,63+B,+>36,2,683*0-+-70?1+-8-,723@,+-00+,16*17,*7,<:50>61209,?1-*01>;-,B1>09, 861B*09,H36,,2-*,*0+H7,*7-:+,&,380-*/3/3-*7009,7,-.,37< J>1++1B-*/09, #6,*89C< <B91:,+-,;,-* *30563+,81*12-8+3B<3*.109, >2,683*! K+3H709,>15*.30-1*1> ,81*12-83*3+H7-7&
77 The Modern World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
78 60 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND = 8-! & 9, 69, > 09, #6,*89 6,;1+50-1* 03@, ;,6561?,<:50*10-*09,>162,I?,80,. :H 09, #6,*89& 309,6 093* H 3615*. 09,#6,*89 :3**,6< 09,?,1?+,7 1> 561?, :,/-*017,,@09,-61B**30-1*3+ 6,;1+50-1*< 3/-030-*/ >16 81*70-05! 0-1*3+ 6,>162: >16 +-:,63! 0-1* >612 >16,-/* 65+,67< B9,09,6 #6,* *& 30-1* ?-.+H:,812,73?10,*0-.,1+1/H -* 561?,< :50-7 1*, 0930?-07,;,6H*30-1*3/3-* ,67&.<" % " D: & 9, 1*/6,77 1> -,**3 6,.63B7 09, 23? 1> 561?,& */+3*.< < < 3* , 09, 23-*?1B,67< 37 #63*8,-7>168,.01/-;,5?21701>-0738G *71>09,?6,8,.-*/?,6-1.&9,1+H1! 23*2?-6,-7 1>>-8-3++H.-771+;,. 3*. 6,?+38,.:H 09,,623*#,.,630-1* J0 K< 5*., *+,3.,679-?&*#63*8,<15-7%-781*>-62,.37S81* *3+S21*3689& & &: 1 815*0, ,?61+->,630-1* 1> 6,;1+50-1*36H J+-:,63+K-.,37< 09,,623* 3* * 65+,67< 380-*/ 1* 09, 3.;-8, 1>,00,6*-89< 1?0 >16 3 6,380-1*36H?1+-8H1> *061+<8,*71679-?<3*.?,67,850-1* 1>.-77-.,*07&,;,609,+,77< 6,;1+50-1*7 81*0-*5, 01,65?0< 5+".#% ;4 +".# *103:+H-*?3-*J<3/3-*7009,6,7016,.@-*/K<6,,8,J<3/3-*7009,56@7K<3*.,+! /-52 J< 3/3-*70 09, 5089@-*/ 01 B912 09,,+/-3* 6,/-1* B ,.-* K& * #63*8,<09,300,2?071>936+,7%016,7016,21* ,+,3.0109,'*?#%+ B9-89:6-*/09,:156/,1-7-,01?1B,6<B ??,J09,S8-0-=,*!@-*/SK37381*70-! 050-1*3+21*3689& 36-7:,812,7393;,*>16? ,>5/,,7<.-77-.,*073*.6,;1+50-1*36-,7 >612,623*H< 1+3*.3*.577-3& &&?:H6, *937 :,812, 09, >-670-* */*30-1*& 0,32!?1B,6< 70,3279-?7< 63-+B3H7 3*. 3.;3*8,. 2,03++56/HB-++>16,;,6893*/,09,793?,1>09-*/7<:1098-;-+-3*3* H<-*561?,3*.,+7,B9,6,& 9,*,B,81*12-8:37, 3++1B7 63?-.-*86,37,-*?1?5+30-1* B :703*0-3+.,86,37,-* +-;-*/ 703*.36.7& #612 1*< +-;-*/ 703* , > ,7 1> 718-,0H& 4+"!!.# 9,+370>32-*,-*561?,-7-*<-*6,+3*.<09,*3:38@B36.815*06H&H <-*.5706-! *-7301??6-16-0H> ?,3**30-1*7&81*12-8?1+-8-,7:,812,,;,6216, -2?1603*0&*,623*H< @,709,+,3.-*-* */31??HJ<812?+,0,. :H K& 0 86,30,7 3*-*0,6* * 236@,0 1> 09,,623*?6-*8-?3+-0-,7< B *H,623*7 B,+812, ,? 01B36.7? *-0Hɤ */+3*. 09,-.,3 1> >6,, 063., 7?6, ,81*0-*,*0<:50B-++*,;,6:,377588,77>5+3709,-.,31>-*0,6*3+>6,,063.,&9, 6,371*7 36, 0930,I0,6* >>7 6,23-* 09, ?1603* , 1>/1;,6*2,*0 6,;,*5, :,>16, 09, 3.;,*0 1>-*812, 03I30-1*< 3*.,81*12-8-*0,6,707<-*86,37-*/+H 16/3*-7,. 1* 3 *30-1*3+:37-7<3/-030,>16?610,80-1*3*.75:7-.-,7&
79 The Modern World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
80 62 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND * <3*.09,6,7-703*8,1>09,,623*?6-*8,7016,>162&*09,9-*,+3*.< J321*/09,236+36IK?6,771*:503+71> ,;,3*H09-*/&.C""6&> > 6&>: &3?1+,1*06-,701706,*/09,*9-7?17-0-1*&,75??160709,03+-3**30-1*3+! -707 J36-:3+.-< 3;156K-* 09, //+, >16*30-1*3+ 5*->-830-1* 3/3-* J5*0-+ 09,* 09,.12-*3*0?1B,61*09,03+-3*?,*-*75+3K& & *5,+ -7 1> 03+H& 12,-7 3.., , -*/.12< 3*.:,812,7-0783?-03+&9, >:&E9-+,09,5706-3*,2?,616= ;)J6&!K>3;156736,30!,623*HJ <09,?6-*8-?3+-0-,7<3* K< <5*.,6E *.9-793*8,+! +163* <B3*0701,I8+5., *.:,812,09,.12-*3*0?1B,6-*35*->-,.,623*H& * < 3>0,6 09, *! * B36< 09,,623* ;,.< 3*. 6,!?+38,.:H31609,623*5*., *81*061+& &E9,*09,,623*,1?1+.1>19,*=1++,6*388,?0709,?3*-79861B*<09,#6,*89 03@,09,1??1605*-0H01.,8+36,B361* <-*3*300,2?001701?-07/61B-*/?1B,6&9, #63*81! *B36:,812,73#63*81!,623*B36B9,*09,71509,6*,623*7030,73++H 09,27,+;,7 B-09 09, 1609,623* & 22,.-30,+H 3>0,6 09,#6,*89.,>,30<@-*/ E B*,. 2?,616 1> 09,,623*'J-*,673-++,7<3*536HK& *. 657! 7-3*1B81*061+,* ?,375*->-,.*30-1*3+7030,7& 5* -+#.$%% 9,' 03@,7 09, +,3.-* >16/-*/ 3 21.,+ 1> 3 9-/9+H-* ,.,81*12H 5*., * 81*061+&,7?-0, 09, >3-+56, 1> 09,:? 3/3-*70 09, 123* <09,7030,@,,?709,3.2-* *1>09, *.,68+17,75?,6;-7-1*& *< */ 3*.;1830-1* *-*/< 36, ,*063+-7,.-* 09, 7030,& @O7 2 JK<.,7-/*,.013;, *6,70<93723*H3.2-6,67-*109,6815*06-,7& <:9,23*H*30-1*7-*09,5706-3*!5*/36-3*,2?-6,:,/-*017065//+,>16*30-1*3+ -*.,?,*.,*8,<B9-+,09,,2?-6, ,8@1*B-0956@-7965+,-*09,3+@3*<3*.B ,2?07:H ,I0,*.-07-*>+5,*8,-*371509!,370,6*.-6,80-1*&7?,8-3++H09,,6:7 3/-030,3/3-*7009,5706-3*7<B911??17,09,-.,31>35*-1*1>09,+3;-8?,1?+,7-*,370,6* 561?,3*.09,3+@3*&!&9,>-6703+@3*B36J?61;1@,.:H577-3K,*.7B-0909,.,>,301>09,56@7< :50-22,.-30,+H3>0,6B36.709,;-80167> ;,609,.-;-7-1*1>09,7?1-+7& & 9, *.5@,#63*=#,6.-*3*.< 7588, , 0961*,< ,6,.-* 363! 4,B1&.@ C 09, +-:,630-1* 21;,2,*07-* 71509,370,6* 561?,<-)))< 01! /,09,6B-09*/+3*.3* <30038@7577-3J6-2,3E36<! K<0957:6,3@-*/09, 9,/,21*H1>577-31*09,81*0-*,*0&E9,*9,09,*/1,71*01.,>, J K<#63*8,-73/3-*09,>-670?1B,6-*561?,< 5* ,>,30,. -* :H 09,,623*7 B-09 09,-6 *,B 4 +#$.$ 81*8,?0 1> 3 2,893*-7,. J63?-. 3* ;, 21;,2,*0 1> 0611?7:H 63-+B3HK& E-09-*3>,BB,,@73?1+,1*-7.,>,30,.<03@,*?6-71*,6<3*..,?17,.& ?*8,:,812,73/3-*36,?5:+-8&* 36-73?1?5+36-*7566,80-1*J9,C (K -775??6,77,.3>0,63>,B21*097& ?*8,,2:36@71*3?61/6321> H21.,6*-730-1*3*.81+1*-3+,I?3*7-1*&!&,*, */,6300,2?073815?.OQ030<:50-7>168,.01>+,,& C A :56-*/09,*-*,0,,*098,*056H<09,*-0,.-*/.126,23-*73 21.,+1>? *.,81*12-8+-:,63+-72&>0,609,.,>,301>3?1+,1*<-0056* ,*!
81 The Modern World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
82 64 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 5*-;,673+75>>63/,<1*09,1*,93*.<3*.09,> ,389;10,6/,*,63++H37752,70930B930-7/11.> /11.>16 09, 815*06H& 9,7, +-:,63+7 0,*. 01:,812, !+-:,63+7 B91 81*8,.,09,?6-*8-?+,1>7030,-*0,6;,*0-1*0109, *.09,81*7,6;30-;,6,>162,67< :5036,*10?6,?36,.0157,-0377B,,?-*/+H3709,-61??1*,*07&9, ?360-,70,*.01 :,812, 6,> *./ < 0915/9 09,H 1>>-8-3++H 01 09,-6 6,;1+50-1*36H/13+7&,36+H3++09,7,?360-,7388,?009,7?-6-01>*30-1*3+-72<:50-*23*H815*06-,7<,I?+-8-0+H*3! 0-1*3+-70?360-,736, ,77>5+&."& 9,7,3689>1689,3?6,71568,7J813+<1-+<2-*,63+7<16,K3*.70630,/-87061*/ ?610,80 1;,67, */ 6150,7 >5,+7 3*,B 3*.-*0,*7,?1+-8H 1> 81+1*-3+ 38G *& 56-*/ 09, 7,81*.93+>1>09, 09 8,*056H<21701>> ;-.,.321*/09,E,70,6*?1B,67<3*.,I?+1-0, , 9-+0 J3+0915/9 1>0,* 30/6,30,I?,*7, 1> 09, 03I?3H,67< B91,*. 5??3H-*/ >16 09,,I?,.-0-1*36H 362-,7 3*. 09, +,/-1*7 1> 3.2-* K& '! &,623*H<-079,3;H-*.5706H*1B>5++H.,;,+1?,.<21.,6*-7,73*.,I?3*.7-07 >+,,03*.706,*/09,*7-07?17-0-1*7-*09,,363*.-..+,370< ,30,*-*/; *0,6,707&07,I?3*7-1*-**1609,6*>6-83J161881K:6-*/7-0-*0181*>+-80B-09#63*8,&,! 8357,,623*H-7:H*1B09,+,3.-*/ H?1B,6-*561?,<09,#6,*893*.09, ,.63B*-*013*3*0-!,623* *<B ,75??1601>577-3& C (: >0,6 09, 8-;-+ B36 J! K< 09,:3+3*8, 1>?1B,6-* 09,?,623*,*0+H79->070109,*1609,6*7030,7<,7?,8-3++H09,-* *.>-*3*8-3+8,*06,71*09, J1701*<,B"16@K&H09,056*1>09,8,*056H09,S370,6*703:+-792,*0S3*. SE3++06,,0S93;,3> *:3*@-*/3*.-*;,702,*03*.36,-*86,37-*/+H-*>+5,*0-3+-*? &9,:3*@7< *.+3B>-62781*061++,.:H09,157,1>16/3*<09,18@,>,+! +,67<3*.59*!1,:<:,/-*0175??+H09,/1;,6*2,*0-*E379-*/01*B-0923*H3*.-2?16! 03*0? *73*.3.2-* <,7?,8-3++H-*>16,-/*3>>3-67& &9,16/3*3*.18@,>,++, *2,6-83*>16,-/*3B3H> * ?, & *0,6,707-* *. -..+, 2, , 09, > /,07<:50 B36-7 3;,60,.:,8357,09, ,1885?-,.B-0909,B363/3-*7009,1,67-*1509>6-83<3*.?6,>,6 01 7,00+,& 11* 09,?3*-79-*0,6,707 36, 30038@,. J?3*-79 B36 1> 1;,6 5:3M 15092,6-83<09, 9-+-??-*,7K&9,*09,056*09,-6300,*0-1*019-*3&! & * 09,#36 370< B36:6,3@7 150:,0B,,* *. 3?3* JB-09.-? ??1601>09,2,6-83*7K1;,616,33*.3*8956-3J-*9-*3K&9,3?3*,7,;-8016H.,! ,709,2H091>09,-*;-*8-:-+-0H1>09,561?,3*?1B,67&9,.,>,30+, *. 6,?6,77-1*-*577-3J09, 10,2@-*-*8-.,*0K&." & 0 09, :,/-**-*/ 1> 09, 8,*056H 09,,623* H :56, * +357,B-0= 93. > ,. 09,?6-*8-?+, (+"#%.# 0930B36-7:5009,81*0-*530-1*1>?1+-8H:H109,62,3*7093*.-?+1238H&21*/09,23416?1B,67-*561?,<.-?+1238HB37>163+1*/0-2,7588,77>5+-*?6,;,*0-*/.-6,80B36<5*0-+ 09,#63*81!,623*B361>&5009,?1B, *-*.-6,80B3H7<:H-*0,6;,*-*/-* 109,6815*06-,7<75??160-*/*30-1* :,630-1*21;,2,*07-*,389109,6O77?9,6,1>-*>+5!,*8,<3*.1>0,*3+71-*>363B3H815*06-,7:H06H-*/01> ,,389109,6O781+1*-3+32:-! 0-1*7& 9,/,1? H 1> 09, 8,*056H-7 236@,.:H-**52,63:+, 81*>,6,*8,7 3*. 06,30-,7-*B9-8909,.-? ,81*0-*53++H6,.63B-*/23?7<712,0-2,77B3??-*/B91+, 815*06-,7321*/09,23416?1B,6709,27,+;,71609,-63++-,71>09,212,*0&105*0-+< B9,*.B ,,.70109,0961*,<.1,7*/+3*./-;,5?-07?1+-8H1>< B9-89-*,>>,803++1B, *03-*09,:3+3*8,1>?1B,61*09,81*0-*,*0:H7-.-*/3/3-*70 B9-89,;,681*0-*,*03+?1B,67,,2,.01/3-*09,5??,693*.&E9,*-0.1,7/-;,5?0930?1+!
83 The Modern World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
84 66 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1> 09, ++-,7<?+3*7 36, 23., 01 16/3*-7, 3 B36,81*12HK& 0-7<-* 09, >5++,70 7,*7, 1> 09, B16.<30103+B36& ,765*-*0123*H2-++-1*7<:501*3++7-.,7<*30-1* ,* *0-*5,701>3*09,>+32,71>B36& = /?? ) 18!229 = 5 5$ <))& :!&H09,,*.1>09,B36<09,>38,1> 561?, H3+0,6,.&,623*H-7,81* H,I93570,.< 09,,2?, >+,,< 3*. 09, ' >38,7 09,.->> @ 1> 6,81* * *!3B3H-*>+30-1*< 5+#"%.$ 6,;1+50-1*36H3/-030-1*1*09,,>03*.1*09, -/90&*577-3<09, 3 *1>937,I0,62-*30,.09, ,/-2,3*. -*703++,.3:5*891>501?-3*>3*30-87J5*.,65K-*8936/,1>3;370 81*0-*,*03+,2?-6,&>0,69-7.,309<03+-*,2,6/,7; H>612 09,-*0,6*3+?1B,6 7065//+, B-09 6-; @H 3*. :,812,7 09, 5*.-7?50,.+,3.,61>09,1;-,0*-1* 3*. 09, 81225*-70 21;,2,*07 -* 109,6815*06-,7& = +# $.$$ 1 <?'*< N. < 6,+3*.< 56@,H 3*. 09, -..+, , -* 6,;1+50-1*36H >,62,*0< 3*. -* 09, >162,6 81+1*-,7 J*103:+H -* *.-3K 09, 75:4,80?,1?+,7:,/-* >16-*.,?,*.,*8,3736,B36.>1609,-6B360-2, *8, 0109,81+1*-3+?1B,67&*561?,<09,B16@-*/8+377,7JB9193;,75??+-,.21701>09,23*!?1B,6>1609,362-,7K3+71B3*0812?,*730-1*3*./,0-0-*09,>1621>5*-;,673+75>>63/,& & C C(? & 9,#6,*89-*7-70 1* 9,3;H S6,?3630-1*?3H2,*07S >612 09,,623*7&,B:16.,67 36,.63B* 1+,7< =,897 3*.,6:7 36, >3;156, *03-*,6! 23*HM 09,H/,0? *061+ 1;,6 +36/, 36,37-*93:-0,.:H 2-*16-0-,7 1>; ,78,*0 J,623*<+1;3@<@63-*-3*<6130<+1;,*,<&&&K&9-76,? *B-++,;,*053++H+,3.01*,B 0,*7-1*70930,65?0-*E16+.E36<3*.3/3-*-*<B9,*"5/17+3;-33*.09,1;-,0*! -1*.-7-*0,/630,&,7?-0,09,-6-*7-/*->-83* H?360<:5081* >09,-6>-*3* ,<-*09,B36<09,
85 The Modern World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
86 68 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 86,.-03*.09,86-??+-*/,>>,8071>?610,80-1*-721*063.,&-+30,63+:360,63/3-*:,812,709, *162-* B ,&,0B,,* 3*. < 09,/ * :3*.1*,. B9,*,389 *30-1*:,/-*70157,-0721*,036H H373*-*70652,*01>*30-1*3+?1+-8H&. )" 7:**/+3*.<09, H38.1*3+.06-,7012,,009,86-7-7B-09 3/63* * 1> 3++?360-,7 J! Kɤ 1*B36.7< 09, 81++3?7, 1> 063., 3*. 09,/1+.!:37,. 21*,036H 7H70, , 715*. 21*,H 815*06-,7-* 561?, J321*/ 09,2#63*8, 3*. 09,,09,6+3*.7K& *#63*8,< 3>0,6 H,367 1> 3/-030-1*:H 09,*30-1* /903*. 3* 1?,* 6,;1+0-* < 09, +,>0-70 1?5+36#61*0 812,7 01?1B,6 JK& ;,6H! B9,6,<5*-;,673+75>>63/,:6-*/7*30-1*3+-703*.`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
87 The Modern World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
88 70 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 3-6>-,+.7>163?3*,7,3,61?+3*,7-*#6,*89*.1!9-*3<:5009,3?3*,7,1885?H09,36,3& *09,7,81*.93+>1>09,H,36<09,B36-*09,3-6:,/-*7<B-0909,? JB9-8909, H3+ -6#168, B-*7K 3*.., ;,:12:36.2,*07 1* H 3*.-* *! *73*.8-0-,71*:1097-.,7&9,2,6-83*?6,7-.,*0<117,;,+0<?612-7,70175??+H 09,++-,7B-09B,3?1*7<:50B-++*10,*0,609,B365*0-+3>0,609, 3?3*,7, 1*,36+ 36:156J1*3B3--<-*09, 38->-8K-*,8,2:,6& 56-*/09,>-670H,3671>B36<75?,6-16B,3?1*6H3*..36-*/1>>,*7-;,7B-++7,6;,09,,6! 23*7B,++<:5009,-6-2?6,77-;, 5??? J3-6 >168,K*,;,6 389-,;,7 812?+,0, 81*061+ 1> 09, B9,*09,++-,7?,6>, *.71*360,89*1+1/-,7&9,,623*701181*0-*5,01.13.! 01H-,+.? ,75+07-*0-2,&*09,109,67-.,1>09,0+3*0-8<3*109,632:-0-157?614,80 1*+H:36,+H2,,0709,.,3.+-*,1>09,,*.1>09,B36J09,3012:12:K&.)? 701?122,+O73.;3*8,J30++32,-*K& 1781B<:5036,>168,.01B-09.63BB-0909,1*7,01>B-*0,6&* 09, ,H 6,389 09, 6-2,3& 9, */ , -*-70,6 ( 812,7 01 3* 3/6,,! 2,*0B *3*.7,856,775??160 >612117,;,+0>1609,++-,7&9,7, 096,,B36+,3.,67B-++6,/5+36+H81*>,6 B-09 1*, 3*109,6 3*. 81!16.-*30, 09, ,/-,7 3/3-*70,623*H& 6, * 3*. 09, 1;-,0 *-1* 1885?H 63* J,67-3K 01 7,856, 09, ??+-,7 3*.-*703++,=3 39+3B & * < 09, 3?3*,7, 30038@ 09, *-,7-* 09,# J*!.1*,7-3K<09, 9-+-??-*,7J5*0-+09,* = 82+'*( $ 3* 2,6-83*?610,801630,K< 3*. 5623&9,7,,;,*07:6-*/09,09,3! 06,1>B368+17, & *09,1885?-,.0, ,7<09,3?3*,7,?6380-7,09,732,2,091.7J0,6616<81*8,*0630-1* 832?7<>168,.+3:156K 3709,,623*7&1@,,? 09,-6B36-*.5706-,7/1-*/ B9-+, 09,-6 1B* 2,* 36, 30 09, >61*0< 09,,623*7 3*. 09, 3?3*,7, >168-:+H-2? *7 1> +3:156,67 >6123:613.&. &9,2,6-83*7*1B:,/-*09,-6+1*/832?3-/*018+,3609, 38->-8-7+3*.7<:6-*/-*/ 09, ,678+17,,*15/901+35* @71*1@H1& *561?,<09,H,36:6-*/709,056*-*/?1-*0-*09,B363709,,623*1>>,*7-;,-*577-3
89 The Modern World 71 >3+0,67<09,*,*.7-*.-7370,6B9,*09,362H1>,*, ,*8-68+, */63.3>0,6 3*109,60,66-:+,B-*0,6<09,756;-; ,*.,6-*3*536H&9,,370,6*>61*0-73: ?7,& *109,6.,>,30<B-09,G53++H/6,30+177,7-*9523*+-;,73*.B,3?1*7<B3-07-*09,.,7,607 1*061+1>09,>6-83*81370/-;,709,++-,73:37-7>163+3*.-*/-*-8-+H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a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
90 72 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 3/3-*6,.63B*&03+H:,812,736,?5:+-8& ,23-*73?61:+,2:,8357, ,.-*! :,0B,,* 09, B,70,6* 3*. 09,,370,6*?1B,67&,+/-52< 9,,09,6+3*.7 3*. 5I,2:156/ >16209,,*,+5I<3*16/3*-730-1*>16,81*12-881!1?,630-1*& 9,23-**,B-* * ,1501>09,3++-3*8,0930B1*09,B3636,09,3?H-<09,*0,6*30-1* >570-8,<09,*0,6*30-1*3+1*,036H#5*.3*. /1;,6*2,*07 B-09 21*,H 3*.,I?,60-7,& 1B,;,6< 09, ++-,7 63?-.+H 7? */-.,1+1/ *, *-701;-,0*-1*<1885?H-*/,370,6*561?,3*.?36071>8,* ?,M3*. 09,+-:,63+!., B,70,6*3++-,7J<<3*.#63*8,K&+6,3.H-*30 J,B 32?79-6,< K 3*-*0,6/1;,6*2,*03+ 81*>,6,*8, 93. 3/6,,. 1* 3*,B 21*,036H 7H70,2<1*+H7H2: H0-,.01/1+.& ,09,2,6-83* ,:37-821*,H1> 09,*1*!81225*-70B16+.&9-77H70,23++1B709,01-*>+30, B-++<09,6,:H-2!?17-*/ 3*-*>+30-1* 03I 1* 09, 6,70 1> 09, B16+. J37 3 2,3*7 1> 6,815?-*/ 09,-6/,*,6157 /63*071>3-.3*.86,.-07K& > :,623*H -7.-;-.,. -* > ?30-1*=1*,7J>1609,1;-,0*-1*<09, *-0,.030,7<6, *<3*.#63*8,K<75:.-! ;-.,.-*5R 3.2-*-70,6,.:H,623*7&,6! +-*<B *09,1;-,0=1*,<-7.-;-.,.-*370 '? B <83.5 '**?1 < 3*.E,70,6+-*&*<09,2,6-83*7812,B-0937?,8-3+?+3*> ?,-*09,?,6-1.1>6,81* *3>0,609,B36J09, :,/-*70116/3*-7,09,,370,6*561?,3*815*06-,7-*381225*-70:+18&E9,*09,577-3*7 6,>57,0175??+HE,70,6+-*J+18@3.,1>,6+-*K<09,B,70,6*3++-,7>+H-*?61;-7-1*>61209, E,70&9-7,?-71.,236@709,:,/-**-*/1>09,1+.E36J!K,8357,09, ++-,7 36, 5*3:+, 01 6,389 3/6,,2,*0 1*,623*H< 09, 1;-,0 =1*,:,812,7 09, B 0 ' J<; H 3 1*,!?360H 7030, 5*.,6 09, H 1> *-0HK<B9-+,09,B,70,6*=1*,736,16/3*-7,.3709,B = 'J<09,96-7! 0-3*., *63..,*35,6-7 09, > *8,++16K& 9,,623*#,.,63+,?5:+-8-7 G5-8@+H-*0,/630,.<? H3*.,81* H<:50*10H, H<-*09,B,70,6*3++-3*8,& *<09,>162,6++-,7.6->0>5609,63?360&* 09,E,70J *0-86,30H 6/3*-730-1*< 09,: H 16/3*-730-1* 1> 09, B,70,6* 3++-,7K-7 86,30,.& 9,,623* #,.,63+,?5:+-8.1,7*1041-*5*0-+ & "%'& & <: & E9-+,-* 09, B,70,6* 561?,3* 815*06-,7< * *-70?360-,7 6,23-* 7061*/JB-0975??160>61223*H+,3.-*/-*0,++,8053+7K<09,1;-,0*-1*23@,709,815*06-, ?-, *-70 1*,!?360H 7030,7 J*1*!81225*-70 +,3.-*/? *7 36, 366,70,. 1* 8936/,71>81*7?-638H<16>168,.01/1-*01,I-+,K&30-1*3+!81225*-70736,711*6,?+38,.:H +1H3+ >1++1B,67 1> 03+-*< 16,+7,,I?,++,. >612 09,-*0,6*30-1* *-70 16/3*-730-1*7 J *"5/17+3;-3< B91:,/-*7 01,I?,6-2,*0 B >>,6,*0 >162 1> /3*-730-1*>-6273*.>38016-,723*3/,.:H09,B16@,67<6309,6093*:H09,8,* ! 0-,737-*09,1;-,07H70,2K& >0,603+-*O7.,309-* <6,7-703*8,0109,1;-,0.12-*30-1*3?!?,367-*6,;1+07-*370,623*H J K< 1+3*.3*.5*/36H J K ,75??6,77,.:H577-3*0611?7& 2 +$%.#% *<-*9-*3<9-3*/3-!9,@<09,2,6-83*3++H.56-*/09,B36<-7.,>,30,.:H09, 81225*-706,:,+362H1>4O03*.>+,,7013-B3*<3*-7+3*.1>>09,813701>23-*! +3*.9-*3&*09,23-*+3*.<3116/3*-7,709,,1?+,O7,?5:+-81>9-*3<B-0909,,. 62H3*.09,81225*-70?360H37-07:37-8-* *7&>0,63.,83.,09,3++-3*8,B-0909,
91 The Modern World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
92 74 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 7-+,7015:3JB9,6,#-., ,01?1B,63>0,63/5,66-++3B363/3-*70 6,7-.,* <37035*892,6-83*3++HK&9,,;,*07706,*/09,*09,?6,70-/,1>;=:<<09, *,B?6,7-.,*01>09,J!K& 2,6-83* >16,-/*?1+-8H J?360+H 210-;30,.:H 09,.,7-6, >16 1?,*-*/*,B 01 09, 3/3-*:112-*/2,6-83*,81*12H<?360+H:H09,.,7-6,0181*03-*81225*-72K+,3.701,*! 03*/+,2,*01>09,-**52,615781*>+-807-*.->>,6,*0?36071> 09,B16+.J15093*.-..+,2,6-83<>6-83<,7?,8-3++H'3-6,K&* ,-6-*0,6;,*0-1* +, , & < B9-89,*.7-*.,>,30< B9,* 09, 81225*-70 6,:,+7 09, 1509-,0*32,7,83?-03+J3-/1*< K& =? 2 -. D * 09, 09, -,0*32 B36/,*,630,7 1>0,*;-1+,*0 705.,*0?610,70&,. B-09/61B-*/ 1??17-0-1*0109,B36< 6,7-.,*0H*.1*&19*71*J!K<09,23-*3689-0,801>09, 2,6-83* B,+>36, 7030, J1 B 2<K<.1,7*10 7,,@ 6,!,+,80-1*& ,7716' -DJ!K3*.30-1*3+,856-0H.;-716,*6H-77-*/,6<6,3893?,38,3/6,,2,*0 B-0909,1609-,0*32,7,<:50-I1*-7>168,.016,7-/*1;,609, 2J>1603?!?-*/09,?91*,71>9-7? ;,6736-,7-*09,6,!,+,80-1*832?3-/*1>K& * 561?,<?5:+-8 1?-*-1* 056*7 3/3-*70 09, 2,6-83*7& *?6-+ < ,> !.,*073009,#6,-,H* RJ>15*.,.:H09,2,6-83*7-*-*,6+-*K.,;,+1?369, >3:71+50,6,4,80-1*1>S2,6-83*83? *.-2?, S<>612B , 1> 09,2 B-++,;,*053++H.63B36/52,*07>163B361>0,66161*09,,703:+-792,*0J' = K& *3H<705.,*07-* /,325892,.-30-7,.7,6-,7 1>.,21* *7 36-7< 6,7-.,*00BJ!K23@,73791B1>>168,:H7,*.-*/03*@71*09,B3H0109, 83?-03+<+,3;-*/ ,7716,16/, 12? ,09-*/3:150S6,>162S& * 09, 3*. 561?,</61B-*/?617?,6-0H< 09, 6,75+0 1> 09, 6,752?0-1* 1>*,36+H >6,, 063.,<3*.3?61!/61B09?1+-8H0930>3;1567-*;,702,*0<3*.09,> ,?170!B36< /,*,630-1* 6,389, < +, /*->-83* */,7& 1*752,6-72 3*. 06,*.H?9-+171?9-,7 J*,1!236I-72< > *7 B ? < 09, S>+1B,6?1B,6S! 21;,2,*0<3*0-! *-72<09,7,I53+3*.109,6+->,!70H+,6,;1+50-1*7<,*;-61*2,*03+! -72K 096-;,& 1.1,;,6 216, 32: *.,I?,*7-;, ?61/6327 3*.-*86,37,..,! 23*.7 >16 +,-756, 3*./5363*0,,.-*812, 6,/36.+,77 1> B16@ *8,7 JB,+>36-72K& 7?,8-3++H-**/+3*.<03+H3*.,+/-52<300,2? ,09,7,.,23*.7B,3@,* 09,*30-1*3+,81*12-,7 J3+0915/9-* 09, +300,6 0B1 815*06-,7 7061*/ S793.1B,81*12-,7S 812,-*01,I-70,*8,K&,3*B9-+,<09,+17,671>09,,81*.E16+.E36<,623*H3*.3?3* 93;,,2,6/,.376,/-1*3+75?,6!?1B,67& *7,G5,*8,1>09, ,/ *7-* 09, 1+. E36< 7,;,6, 6, *7 1* 09, H 7?,*.-*/< 3*. 09,-6 81* *3+ 812! 2-02,* ,+30-;,+H 5*932?,6,. 236@,0,81*12H JB-09,81*12-8 +,/ * >1++1B-*/ 6309,6093*300,2?0-*/0170,,6:57-*,77?6380-8,7K3*.6,+30-;,+H+1B03I,7&.$,4 9,1;-,0*-1*6,03-*775?,6!?1B, <:50-0:,812,7-*86,37-*/+H23*->, ,81*12-87H70,2-72-6,.-*2377-;,-*,>>-8-,*8H3*.81665?0-1*&9,,I063;3/3*0?612-7,7 1> ,;-*<093009,1;-,0*-1*B-++756?37709,E,70B-09-*H,3673* ;-,03*B-++:H09,*93;,6,389,.3*,B703/,-*09,,;1+50-1*1>09,9523*7?,8-,7<36, >16/100,*& * 09, >+32:1H3* ,; ,.:H 09, 5*-*7?-6-*/ 3?? @ 5 *J!K&6,=*4,;O7?1+-8H-7:37,.1*09,81*8,?01>09,1;-,0*-1*37 75?,6!?1B,6<,I,60-*/>5++9,/,21*HB-09-*-071B*7?9,6,1>-*>+5,*8,&957<B9,*-*09, 7?6-*/1>=,8917+1;3@-3*?360H+,3.,67+,.:H+,I3*.,65:89,@7,015001?61.58, 3S B *>38,SB-09150?61?,681* *1>1781B<577-33*.109,6 370,6*+18*30-1*77,*.03*@70175??6,7709,5?6-7-*/3*.016,?+38,09,?360H+,3.,679-?
93 The Modern World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
94 76 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 7386,.*30-1* *8+357,<B9,*1*H+3-6:,812,7?360H+,3.,6JK& S 6-; *S3*.S812?,0-0-;,*,77S36,@,H,81* ,/-,7/1;,6*2,*0706H0163-7, 8379:H7,++-*/1>>*30-1*3+-7,.-*.5706-,73*.,*81563/,3* :57-*,77, :H 630-1* *7<6,!16/3*-730-1*7<3*.0,89*1+1/-83+-**1;30-1*7&9, *86,37, 03I! 6,;,*5,7B-09150S@-++-*/09,/117,0930+3H709,/1+.,*,//7SJ2170/1;,6*2,*0781*0-*53++H 65* 95/,.,> *. 36,:56.,*,.:H.,:0K& * 812:-*30-1* B-09 1>0,*?,6;,67, 236/-*3+ 03I630,709,6-7-*/.,23*.>16S,>>-8-,*8HS86,30,7SB,+>36,063?7S<1609,S ,0HS&* 561?,<9-/95*,2?+1H2,*0:,812,7,*.,2-8M.,7?-0,81*8,6*3:15009,+1*/!0,62;-3:-+! -0H1>7030,!>5*.,.?,*7-1*7!7H70,27<09, /, 1>6,0-6,2,*0>3++7&9, >*,0!03I?3H,6701*,003I!81*752,6781*0-*5,701>3++&.%&&"%'& E-09 09,,I8,?0-1* 1> 09, 81*0-*5-*/ B36:,0B,,* *. 610,703*0,I06,2-707-* 1609,6* 6,+3*.< 09, 0, > 37G5,*30-1* *?3-*< 561?,-7 30?,38,& 11+-/3*73*.3> *3+;-1+,*8,3*.09,6,36, >6-/90!B-*/81*! 7?-638-,7:,9-*.712,38071>;-1+,*8,&+101>0, ;-1+,*8,-7381*7,G5,*8,1>81*! >+-807-*09,,363*.-..+,370J 3+,70-*,<,:3*1*<63*<63GK&,>0!B-*/0, J10, 62,,#63@0-1*K.-73??,367& 9, ,;,* *370,6*561?,&*< 1+-79B16@,67<+,.:H5 <.,23*.09,6-/9001>1623*-*.,?,*.,*0+3:1565*-1*3*.09,6,36,23*->,7030-1*7 3*.6-107&9,577-3*7-*0,6;,*,<:5083**1075??6,7709,8+3*.,70-*,1??17-0-1*&*< 09,B16@,673/3-*6-7,<3* ,09,H/,009,-65*-1*<3*.2589,+7,:,7-.,7&* <09, 6,>162!2-*.,.B *:,812,7?360H+,3.,63*.J-*K 6,7-.,*01>09,1;-,0*-1*&,-22,.-30,+HB-09.63B709,577-3*0611?7>612>/93*-703*B9,6,09,HB,6,75>>,6-*/ 9,3;H+177,7-*3? ,.B363/3-* /5,66-++3>-/90,67&6H-*/01-2?61;,09,,>>-! 8-,*8H1>09,1;-,0,81*12H<9,5*-*0,*0-1*3++H5*.,62-*,7?3601>09,,703:+-79,.1;-,0?1B, ,<0957+,00-*/+117,>168,7:,H1*.9-781*061+&009,732,0-2,<95/,*52! :,671>?,1?+,-*09,370,6*+18815*06-,7J=,8917+1;3@-3<370,623*HK06H01,783?, >61209,81++3?7-*/81225*-70,81*12H0109,E,70&E9,*09,:16.,6736,1?,*,.<?,1?+, >+,,:H09,091573*.7<9370H6,>16273**15*8,.:H09, ,71*+H+,3.01.,23*.7>16 >5*.32,*03+? *.,81*12-86,>162&*812?+,0, H09,81225*-70+,3.,673:!.-830,1636,.6-;,*>612?1B,6<3*.?61;-7-1*3+/1;,6*2,*077, *@09,815*06-,701 09, E,70< , ,>162 09,,81*12H& 1*, 1> 09,2 7588,,.7-*.1-*/ B930 09, 81225*-707-*7-3.16,>162 09,-6,81*12-,7 B ,+-*G5-79-*/? ?1B,6& 5! 2,61576,?5:+-87B-09-*09,1;-,0*-1*-07,+>.,23*.-*.,?,*.,*8,J2170*103:+H09, ,7<09,@63-*,<,16/-3<: , ,7K&93++,*/,.:H09,23H161> 1781B<16-7",+07-*<16:389,;-71570,.<3*.09,1;-,0*-1*75..,*+H8,37,701,I-70& 0-76,?+38,.:H3(<?) 2& * 7,;,63+ 1> 09,2<-*8+5.-*/ 577-3<-66,!.,*0-703*.-*.,?,*.,*8,21;,2,*077?6-*/5?<06H-*/016,.63B09,23?1>09,>162,61! ;-,02?-6,&*09,3+@3*<09,"5/17+3;-3* *-1* ;,.<:50 09,6, *>+-80 3*. :-00,6>-/90-*/,65?0J,7?,8-3++H.56-*/09,B36-*17*-3!,6=,/1;-*3<5*0-+09,?,38,3/6,,! 2,*071>K& $4$<",",,= $.%& (& &E-0909,2,6-83* */09,+,3.,679-?1>09,E,70,6*B16+.<561?,3*?1+-0-! 8-3*783*056*09,-6300,*0-1*016,81* *1>09,.,;37030,.,81*12-,7& &' 2< 3#6,*89? *<?61?17,7 09, 86,30-1* 1> * 75?63! *30-1*3+< 3??36,*0+H*1*!? H 01 6,/5+30, 09, *. 70,,+-*.5706H-* E,70,623*H 3*.#63*8,& E-09,3* 1**,0< 9, 36/5,7 0930#63*8, 3*.,623*H 2-/90?50
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96 78 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND &*3*536H<06,30-,71>388,77-1*36,7-/*, ,7,>1563??+-83*0815*06-,71* 3*536H<<:5016B3H;10,73/3-*702,2:,679-?-* 36,>,6,*.52&6, *-73 S.->>-85+0?360*,6S >612 09,;,6H 70360<:50-* 5*, ,>,6,* *7 150-* >3;1561>2,2:,679-?&1B,;,6<?61:+,276,23-*81*8,6*-*/09,.-706-:50-1*1>09,>-783+ :56.,*1>09,& &0-73/6,,.09306, * ,8,-;,3? ,:30,1>-073**53+*,081*06-! :50-1*70109,&9,-2?1603*0-775,5*.,6+H-*/09,7,*,/ *7-7<B9,09,609,-7,77,*0-3++H37030,!+-@,6,.-706-:50-1*-70-* *<03@-*/21*,H9,6,<3*.7?,*.-*/-009,6,< */ 01 B , 16 +,77?1B,6 3*.-*>+5,*8, 1*.,8-7-1* 23@-*/M ! 1?,630-;,5*.,603@-*/01/,*,630,25053+/3-*71>063.,&709,38G5-6,7*,B?1B,673*. *,B1??1605*-0-,7>167?,*.-*/21*,H<O6577,+7O-763?-.+H:,812-*/3 7H2:1+ 1>? *.:56, ::H-*/&*,-*703*8,-709,,I?3*7-1*1>3-.01>162,681+1*-3+?17! 7,77-1*71>09,2,2:,67030,73*.01109,6+,77.,;,+1?,.815*06-,7& &6,,8,,*0,6709,-*& &?3-*3*. 1605/3+36,3.2-00,.&.>(> *, 23416?61:+,2 1> 09, 561?,3* 7030,7 7H70,2-7 09,,I-70,*8, 1>*30-1*3+:3*@7& 9,7,:3*@736,/,*,63++H5*.,67061*/? ?6,7756, ,09,?1+-8-,71>09, *30-1*3+/1;,6*2,*07<-&,& 01 23*-?5+30, 09, 21*,H 75??+H */ 01 09,? ,! 23*.71>09,212,*0&9,/,*,63+06,*.-71*,1>-*86,37-*/-*>+30-1*<0915/930B-.,+H.->! >,6,*0630,7&1*7,G5,*0+H<09,236@,0,I893*/,630,7> ,81*7-.,63:+H& &*368909,/ 4 <2<JK-7-*70-050,.01?61;-.,712,703:-+-0H-* 09,6,+30-1*79-?7321*/2,2:,68566,*8-,7&0-72,3*001:,3>-67070,?01B36.709,63? ,;,2,*01>3*,81*12-83*.21*,036H5*-1*&9-7?614,80-1*?61;,71;,6+H1? M 8566,*8-,7 1> 2,2:,6 7030,7 81*0-*5, 01 > , 3/3-*70, ,6& 9, 7H70,2 83**10 3;,6009,.,; *1>712,8566,*8-,7& 9,09,16H:,9-*.09, :-+-7,,I893*/,630,73*.856:-*>+30-1*:H+-2-0-*/09, 236/-*1>> *>16,3892,2:,68566,*8H ,;-30-1*>61238,* ,& 81221*/ ( <HJK-7-*061.58,.:HB9-8909,8,*063+,I893*/,630,783* :,7,0&9,-7812?6-7,.1>3++09,8566,*8-,7<B,-/90, */0109,,81* ?1603*8,1>,389815*06H&E9,*3*H8566,*8H6,389,709,+-2-01>09,236/-*1>>+58053! 0-1*<16-/-*3++H7,030&?,68,*0<09,8,*063+:3*@71>09,6,7?,80-;,815*06-,736,1:+-/,. 01-*0,6;,*,:H7,++-*/1>>09,7061*/,68566,*8H3*.:5H-*/09,B,3@,61*,&1?6,;,*07-/! *->-83*0.,;-30-1*>61209,036/,0630,1;,6,I0,*.,.?,6-1.7<09,2,2:,67030,736,6,G5-6, ?03??61?6-30,,81*12-8?1+-8-,7& &,7?-0, 712, 7588,77, :50, , J+1B,6-*>+30-1* 630,7< 3*. 3 6,+30-;,?610,80-1* 3/3-*70/+1: ,*8H > *7.56-*/ 09, 7K<-07?6-*8-?3+2,893*-72<09,/D'4 JK< 81++3?7,7-*,?0,2:,6& B ,2:,67< 03+H 3*.6, *<36,>168,.1501>09,&.(&# " & 38G5,7, >162,6#6,*89 >-*3*8, 2-*-70,6 :,812,7?6,7-.,*0 1> 09, / (&, 23@,7?61/6,77 01B */+, 561?,3* 236@,0 09, 01??6-16-0H >16 9-7?6,7-.,*8H& ,,0-*/ -* -+3*< 9,?61?17,7 01 6,21;,*,36+H , 6,23-*-*/ 063.,:366-,67 :,0B,,*09,2,2:,67030,7&9,/ (1>9,3.71> = ;0 7030, 3*. +,3.,67 1>/1;,6*2,*0 3??61;,7 09,?+3*< 7,00-*/,8,2:,6 < < 37 09,.30, >16 09, 812?+,0-1* 1> 09,
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