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1 Cover Page The handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation Author: Sertlek, Hüseyin Ӧzkan Title: Aria of the Dutch North Sea Issue Date:

2 Het doel van deze thesis is te onderzoeken wat de ruimtelijke, temporale en spectrale verdeling is van het onderwater geluid ten gevolge van antropogene en natuurlijke bronnen in het Nederlandse deel van de Noordzee, als onderdeel van een grootschaliger project waarbij in andere deelprojecten gekeken is naar de effecten van geluiden op vissen en zeezoogdieren. De akoestische inzichten en wiskundige tool die uit dit werk zijn voortgekomen kunnen door beleidsmakers, wetgevers, biologen en natuurbeschermers worden gebruikt voor milieu effect rapportages, het sturen van onderzoeksinspanningen en het vinden van potentiële gebieden of periodes waar er een "akoestisch conflict" kan ontstaan tussen menselijk handelen en het dierlijk leven onderwater. De hoofdstukken van dit rapport beschrijven hoe deze inzichten zijn verkrijgen en hoe dit heeft geleid tot de ontwikkelde tool. Er is hierbij een onderscheid gemaakt tussen de volgende drie fases: In de eerste fase (hoofdstuk 2) heb ik in een literatuur studie een inventarisatie gemaakt van beschikbare modellen voor bronvermogen en geluidsvoortplanting. Ik heb de meest bruikbare modellen gecombineerd om tot een zo optimale oplossing te komen. Deze modellen hangen af van de omgevingsparameters. Naast dat de ontwikkelde modellen zijn geoptimaliseerd met betrekking tot de rekentijd, zijn ze ook numeriek gevalideerd voor een aantal rekenscenario s uit de Weston Memorial Workshop (2010). Tot slot heb aangetoond dat de voor het voortplantingsmodel aangenomen diepte- onafhankelijke geluidssnelheid niet leidt tot grote onnauwkeurigheden voor het Nederlands continentaal plat waar het water ondiep is. In de tweede fase (hoofdstuk 3) heb ik de ontwikkelde modellen gebruikt om echte data van antropogene en natuurlijke bronnen voor de Noordzee om te zetten in verschillende kaarten en visualisaties die het onderwatergeluid in de Noordzee beschrijven. Ik heb me hierbij gericht op drie antropogene bronnen (Scheepsvaart, onderwaterexplosies, en seismische onderzoeken) en een natuurlijke bron (wind). De ontwikkelde methodiek kan in de toekomst echter ook worden ingezet voor andere geluidsbronnen zoals het heien van heipalen voor windparken, bliksem of regen. De gegenereerde geluidskaarten zijn gebruikt om de bronnen te sorteren op basis van hun totale bijdrage aan de akoestische energie onderwater (gemiddeld over een periode van twee jaar). Het is gebleken dat scheepsvaart de meest dominante bron van energie is (100Hz - 100kHz), gevolgd door seismisch bodem onderzoek (airguns) en daarna door explosies. Voor al deze bronnen bleek

3 de meeste energie zich te bevinden in de 100Hz tot 1kHz band. Wanneer er wordt gekeken naar de impact van het geluid op het zeeleven is het van belang om ook rekening te houden met de duur van de akoestische blootstelling. De geluidskaarten onthulden duidelijke ruimtelijke kenmerken voor alle antropogene bronnen. Scheepsvaart routes resulteerden in akoestische paden met verhoogde geluidsniveaus zoals snelwegen op land. Het seismische bodemonderzoek en de explosies kenmerkten zich daarentegen door een meer gefragmenteerde karakteristiek; verbonden aan meer in de ruimte en tijd variabele planning van deze activiteiten. Als deel van dit hoofdstuk heb ik ook de modelnauwkeurigheid gevalideerd met echte metingen. De nauwkeurigheid van mijn simulaties is gelimiteerd door het ontbreken van gedetailleerde informatie van de omgeving (het beweeglijke zee oppervlakte, de bodem, de geluidssnelheid etc.), bron beschrijving (het aantal bronnen van elk type, hun geografische verspreiding, bron spectrum en equivalente bron diepte) en de onderliggende aannames achter het propagatie model en de bron modellen, allen welke resulteren in onzekerheden in de berekeningen. Hoewel ik heb kunnen aantonen dat het effect van de geluidssnelheid klein is, verdienen de overige onzekerheden nog nader onderzoek, een taak die ik dankbaar achterlaat voor een toekomstig project. In de derde fase (hoofdstuk 4) heb ik deelgenomen aan een gemeenschappelijke inspanning met als doel om de relevantie van akoestische inzichten aan te tonen. Hierbij zijn de geluidsniveaus, locaties en data van explosies gecorreleerd aan dierverspreiding en zwemgedrag van bruinvissen. Deze resultaten zijn gebruikt om een akoestische blootstelling om te zetten naar een populatieeffect en om het effect te bepalen van de blootstelling op diergedrag. De gevonden resultaten tonen duidelijk de meerwaarde aan van het gebruik van geluidskaarten in combinatie met biologische data. De gebruikte methodiek is ook toe te passen voor andere zoogdieren en vissoorten. De geluidskaarten kunnen ook worden gewogen voor de zwemdiepteverdeling en de gehoorgevoeligheid van dieren om tot een meer "dierspecifieke" akoestische blootstelling te komen. Om tot een realistische effect te komen voor vissen is het waarschijnlijk nodig om ook de deeltjessnelheid te berekenen, omdat alle vissen hiervoor gevoeliger zijn. Enkel vissen met een zwemblaas zijn gevoelig voor de akoestische druk. Samengevat beschrijven de in deze thesis opgenomen berekeningen en geluidskaarten de huidige kennis over het onderwater geluid en de geluidsbelasting die lijkt plaats te vinden. De felle kleuren in de kaarten dienen echter niet per definitie als gevaarlijk te worden geïnterpreteerd. In ieder geval nog niet, en naar waarschijnlijkheid ook niet in een later stadium. Het is nog onbekend of de 198

4 door menselijke activiteit toegenomen onderwater geluid niveaus leiden tot schadelijke effecten op het zeeleven. Diersoorten in de zee die eventueel beïnvloed kunnen worden door het geluid zijn zoogdieren, vissen en zelfs ongewervelden, welke een kritische rol kunnen spelen in de voedselketen of voor de visserij (garnalen en kreeften). De impact kan gaan om het maskeren van belangrijke geluiden, afleiding, verstoring, wegjagen en zelf gehoorschade. Echter. empirisch bewijs dat aantoont dat antropogeen geluid het leven onderwater beïnvloedt ( Good Environmental Status ) is zeldzaam of niet beschikbaar. Ik hoop dat dit werk en de beschikbaar gemaakte tools helpen om bewustwording te creëren voor deze ontbrekende kennis, en dat mijn werk helpt om akoestische verstoring van het leven onderwater te detecteren, voorkomen of te mitigeren. 199

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